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Pearson Baccalaureate Chemistry Standard Level 2eAnnað
- Höfundar: Mike Ford, Catrin Brown
- Útgáfa:2
- Útgáfudagur: 20-07-2020
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- Format:Page Fidelity
- ISBN 13: 9781292371566
- Print ISBN: 9781447959069
- ISBN 10: 1292371560
Efnisyfirlit
- Contents
- Introduction
- Chapter 1: Stoichiometric relationships
- 1.1: Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change
- Chemical elements are the fundamental building blocks of chemistry
- Chemical compounds are formed from more than one element
- Chemical equations summarize chemical change
- Mixtures form when substances combine without chemical interaction
- Matter exists in different states determined by the temperature and pressure
- Matter changes state reversibly
- 1.2: The mole concept
- The Avogadro constant defi nes the mole as the unit of amount in chemistry
- Relative atomic mass is used to compare the masses of atoms
- Relative formula mass is used to compare masses of compounds
- Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance
- The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest ratio of its atoms
- Percentage composition by mass can be calculated from the empirical formula
- The molecular formula of a compound gives the actual number of atoms in a molecule
- 1.3: Reacting masses and volumes
- Chemical equations show reactants combining in a fixed molar ratio
- The theoretical yield is determined by the limiting reactant
- The percentage yield can be calculated from the experimental and theoretical yields
- Avogadro’s law directly relates gas volumes to moles
- All gases under the same conditions have the same molar volume
- The gas laws describe pressure, volume and temperature relationships for all gases
- The ideal gas equation is derived from the combined gas equation and Avogadro’s law
- Real gases show deviation from ideal behaviour
- The concentration of a solution depends on moles of solute and volume of solution
- Dilutions of solutions reduce the concentration
- The concentration of a solution can be determined by volumetric analysis
- 1.1: Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change
- 2.1: The nuclear atom
- Dalton’s model of the atom
- Atoms contain electrons
- Rutherford’s model of the atom
- Sub-atomic particles
- Bohr model of the hydrogen atom
- Atomic number and mass number
- Ions
- Relative atomic masses of some elements
- Mass spectra
- 2.2: Electron configuration
- The electromagnetic spectrum
- Atomic absorption and emission line spectra
- Evidence for the Bohr model
- The hydrogen spectrum
- Wave and particle models
- The Uncertainty Principle
- Schrödinger model of the hydrogen atom
- Atomic orbitals
- Sub-levels of electrons
- Aufbau Principle: orbital diagrams
- The relative energy of the orbitals depends on the atomic number
- Electron configuration of ions
- Electronic configuration and the Periodic Table
- 3.1: The Periodic Table
- Periods and groups
- Metals and non-metals
- 3.2: Periodic trends
- Physical properties
- Ionization energies
- Chemical properties
- Bonding of the Period 3 oxides
- 4.1: Ionic bonding and structure
- Ions form when electrons are transferred
- Ionic compounds form when oppositely charged ions attract
- Ionic compounds have a lattice structure
- The physical properties of ionic compounds reflect their lattice structure
- Different ionic compounds have a different extent of ionic character
- 4.2: Covalent bonding
- A covalent bond forms by atoms sharing electrons
- Atoms can share more than one pair of electrons to form multiple bonds
- Short bonds are strong bonds
- 4.3: Covalent structures
- Lewis diagrams are used to show the arrangement of electrons in covalent molecules
- In coordinate bonds both shared electrons come from one atom
- The octet rule is not always followed
- VSEPR theory: The shape of a molecule is determined by repulsion between electron domains
- Summary of shapes of molecules predicted from VSEPR theory
- Molecules with polar bonds are not always polar
- Electrons in multiple bonds can sometimes spread themselves between more than one bonding position
- Some covalent substances form giant molecular crystalline solids
- 4.4: Intermolecular forces
- London (dispersion) forces
- Dipole–dipole attraction
- Hydrogen bonding
- The physical properties of covalent compounds are largely a result of their intermolecular forces
- 4.5: Metallic bonding
- Alloys are solutions of metals with enhanced properties
- 5.1: Measuring energy changes
- Work and heat transfer energy
- System and surroundings
- The heat content of a system is its enthalpy
- Exothermic and endothermic reactions
- Standard enthalpy changes
- Thermochemical equations
- Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy
- Heat changes can be calculated from temperature changes
- Enthalpy changes and the direction of change
- Measuring enthalpy changes of combustion
- Calculating enthalpies of reaction in solution from temperature changes
- Enthalpy changes of reaction in solution
- 5.2: Hess’s law
- Enthalpy cycles
- Using Hess’s law
- Standard enthalpy changes of reaction
- Using standard enthalpy changes of formation
- 5.3: Bond enthalpies
- Breaking bonds is an endothermic process
- Making bonds is an exothermic process
- Using bond enthalpies to calculate the enthalpy changes of reaction
- Ozone depletion
- 6.1: Collision theory and rates of reaction
- Rate of reaction is defined as the rate of change in concentration
- Measuring rates of reaction uses different techniques depending on the reaction
- Collision theory
- Factors affecting rate of reaction
- 7.1: Equilibrium
- Physical systems
- Chemical systems
- The equilibrium state has specific characteristics
- The equilibrium constant Kc can be predicted from a reaction’s stoichiometry
- The magnitude of Kc gives information on the extent of reaction
- The reaction quotient, Q, enables us to predict the direction of reaction
- Relationships between Kc for different equations of a reaction
- When equilibrium is disrupted
- Equilibrium theory is applied in many industrial processes
- 8.1: Theories of acids and bases
- Early theories
- Brønsted–Lowry: a theory of proton transfer
- 8.2: Properties of acids and bases
- Acids react with metals, bases, and carbonates to form salts
- Acids and bases can be distinguished using indicators
- 8.3: The pH scale
- pH is a logarithmic expression of [H+]
- pH calculations
- Measuring pH
- The relationship between H+ and OH− is inverse
- Summary of steps in calculations of H+, OH− and pH
- 8.4: Strong and weak acids and bases
- The strength of an acid or base depends on its extent of ionization
- Weak acids and bases are much more common than strong acids and bases
- Distinguishing between strong and weak acids and bases
- 8.5: Acid deposition
- Causes of acid deposition
- Effects of acid deposition
- Responses to acid deposition
- 9.1: Oxidation and reduction
- Introduction to oxidation and reduction
- Oxidation numbers enable us to track redox change
- Strategy for assigning oxidation states
- Interpreting oxidation states
- Systematic names of compounds use oxidation numbers
- Redox equations
- Oxidizing and reducing agents
- More reactive metals are stronger reducing agents
- More reactive non-metals are stronger oxidizing agents
- Redox titrations
- 9.2: Electrochemical cells
- Voltaic cells generate electricity from spontaneous redox reactions
- Half-cells generate electrode potentials
- Two connected half-cells make a voltaic cell
- Different half-cells make voltaic cells with different voltages
- An external source of electricity drives non-spontaneous redox reactions
- Redox reactions occur at the electrodes
- The electrolysis of molten salts
- 10.1: Fundamentals of organic chemistry
- Homologous series
- Formulas for organic compounds: empirical, molecular, and structural
- Nomenclature for organic compounds: the IUPAC system
- Structural isomers: different arrangements of the same atoms
- Primary, secondary, and tertiary compounds
- Arenes
- Trends in physical properties
- 10.2: Functional group chemistry
- Alkanes
- Alkenes
- Alcohols
- Halogenoalkanes
- Benzene
- 11.1: Uncertainties and errors in measurement and results
- Uncertainty in measurement
- Other sources of uncertainty
- Significant figures in measurements
- Experimental errors
- Percentage uncertainties and errors
- Propagation of uncertainties in calculated results
- Significant figures in calculations
- Discussing errors and uncertainties
- 11.2: Graphical techniques
- Plotting graphs
- The ‘best-fit’ straight line
- Finding the gradient of a straight line or curve
- Errors and graphs
- Choosing what to plot to produce a straight line
- Sketched graphs are used to show qualitative trends
- Using spreadsheets to plot graphs
- 11.3: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds
- Analytical techniques
- Mass spectrometry
- The degree of unsaturation/IHD
- Different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum give different information about the structure of
- Infrared (IR) spectroscopy
- Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
- Analytical chemistry depends on combining information
- A.1: Materials science introduction
- Materials are classifi ed based on their uses, properties, or bonding and structure
- The properties of a material based on the degree of covalent, ionic, or metallic character can be de
- There are four distinct classes of materials
- Some physical properties of materials
- A.2: Metals and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy
- The method of extraction is related to its position in the activity series
- The equations for the extraction can be deduced from changes in oxidation numbers
- Aluminium is extracted from its ore (bauxite) by electrolysis
- The amount of metal produced depends on the number of electrons supplied
- Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals with other metals or non-metals
- Paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials display different behaviour in magnetic fields because of the
- Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy determines the identity and concentration of metals
- A.3: Catalysts
- Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis
- Examples of catalysts: transition metals
- Zeolites act as selective catalysts because of their cage structures
- Nanoparticles are effective heterogeneous catalysts as they havelarge surface areas per unit mass
- Catalytic activity can be modified with the use of promoters and inhibitors or inactivated by poison
- Catalyst choice depends on selectivity for only the desired product and environmental impact
- A.4: Liquid crystals
- Thermotropic liquid crystals show liquid crystal behaviour over a temperature range
- Lyotropic liquid crystals are solutions
- The elasticity and electrical and optical properties depend on the orientation of the molecule to so
- Biphenyl nitriles show liquid crystal behaviour
- The use of biphenyl nitriles in liquid crystal display devices
- Twisted nematic LCDs
- A.5: Polymers
- The density of poly(ethene) depends on the branching in the structure
- Different orientations of side groups lead to isotactic and atactic forms
- The properties of polyvinyl chloride are modified by using plasticizers
- Expanded polystyrene is made by adding volatile hydrocarbons
- Polymers can be classified based on their response to heat and applied forces
- Atom economy is a measure of efficiency applied in Green Chemistry
- A.6: Nanotechnology
- Nanotechnology involves structures in the 1–100 nm range
- Individual atoms can be visualized and manipulated using the scanning tunnelling and atomic force mi
- Self-assembly can occur spontaneously in solution due to intermolecular interactions
- Nanowires are used in electronic devices
- Carbon nanotubes are made from pentagons and hexagons of carbon atoms
- Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) can be made
- Graphene is a single atomic plane of graphite
- Carbon nanotubes are made by arc discharge, chemical vapour deposition (CVD), and high-pressure carb
- Implications of nanotechnology
- A.7: Environmental impact: plastics
- Health concerns of using volatile plasticizer in polymer production
- Plastics do not degrade easily because of their strong covalent bonds
- Incineration of plastics reduces bulk, releases energy but produces air pollution
- Incomplete combustion of PVC produces dioxins
- Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans are dioxin-like substances and ar
- House fires can release many toxins when plastic objects burn
- Plastics require more processing to be recycled than other materials
- Plastics can be identified from their IR spectrum
- B.1: Introduction to biochemistry
- Biochemical reactions are organized in metabolic pathways
- Biomolecules are diverse organic molecules
- Living cells transform energy
- B.2: Proteins and enzymes
- The functions of proteins
- The structure of proteins
- Enzymes are globular proteins
- Enzymes form a complex with the substrate
- Analysis of proteins
- B.3: Lipids
- Functions of lipids
- Structures of different lipids
- Structure of triglycerides: fats and oils
- Structure of phospholipids
- Structure of steroids
- B.4: Carbohydrates
- Functions of carbohydrates
- Structure of carbohydrates
- B.5: Vitamins
- Vitamins are organic micronutrients
- Vitamin deficiencies are a form of malnutrition
- B.6: Biochemistry and the environment
- Xenobiotics: strangers to life
- Amelioration: responses to xenobiotics
- Green Chemistry
- C.1: Energy sources
- A useful energy source releases energy at a reasonable rate and produces minimal pollution
- Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished
- The energy density of a fuel is the energy produced per unit volume and the specific energy is the e
- Energy conversions are never 100% efficient
- C.2: Fossil fuels
- Fossil fuels were formed by the reduction of biological compounds
- Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel
- Crude oil is a valuable fuel and chemical feedstock
- Natural gas is mainly methane
- The past and future of fossil fuels
- Carbon footprint
- C.3: Nuclear fusion and fission
- Some particles in the particles zoo
- The mass defect is the difference between the mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of its i
- Binding energy graphs can be used to understand nuclear stability
- Light nucleican undergo fusion reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon
- The elements in the stars can be identified by their absorption spectra
- Nuclear fusion as a possible source of energy
- The advantages of nuclear fusion
- Heavy nuclei can undergo fission reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon
- Uncontrolled nuclear reactions are used in nuclear weapons
- 239/94 Pu used as a fuel in ‘breeder reactors’ is produced from 238/92U by neutron capture
- Nuclear waste is still radioactive
- The half-life of radioactive isotopes
- Nuclear waste can be high level or low level
- Comparison between fossil fuel and nuclear power stations
- C.4: Solar energy
- Light can be absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments with a conjugated electronic structure
- Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy
- Ethanol can be used as a biofuel
- The advantages and disadvantages of using biofuels
- The energy content of vegetable oils
- Transesterifi cation with ethanol or methanol produces oils with lower viscosity that can be used in
- C.5: Environmental impact: global warming
- Greenhouse gases absorb the long-wavelength IR radiation from the Earth
- Greenhouse gases and their sources
- Influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on the atmosphere
- There is a heterogeneous equilibrium between atmospheric carbon dioxide and aqueous carbon dioxide i
- Ocean acidification affects shell-forming animals
- Global dimming
- Three strategies for reducing carbon dioxide levels
- D.1: Pharmaceutical products and drug action
- The human body has many natural systems of defence
- Medicines and drugs: some terminology
- Drugs can be administered in different ways
- Bioavailability of drugs: the amount that reaches the target
- Physiological effects of drugs are complex
- Drug action depends on interactions with receptors
- The development of new synthetic drugs is a long and costly process
- D.2: Aspirin and penicillin
- Aspirin: a mild analgesic
- Penicillin: an early antibiotic
- D.3: Opiates
- The opiates bind to receptor sites in the brain
- Strong analgesics must enter the brain
- The structures and synthesis of opiods
- Advantages and disadvantages of using strong analgesics
- D.4: pH regulation of the stomach
- Excess acidity in the stomach is potentially harmful
- Some drugs work to prevent the production of excess acid
- Antacids are weak bases which neutralize excess acid
- D.5: Antiviral medications
- Viruses: nature’s most successful parasites
- The war against viruses
- Flu viruses: a case study in antivirals
- AIDS: a viral pandemic
- D.6: Environmental impact of some medications
- Solvent waste: the major emission of the drug industry
- Nuclear waste: an increasing problem in the drug industry
- Antibiotic waste: are we killing the cures?
- Obtaining the Tamiflu precursor: a Green Chemistry case study
- Green Chemistry success stories in the pharmaceutical industry
- Experimental work is an integral part of chemistry
- Health, safety, and the environment
- Practical skills
- Assessment of experimental work
- The investigation
- The assessment criteria
- Making the most of your Internal Assessment opportunity
- Introduction
- Ways of knowing: perception
- Chemistry and technology
- The scientific method
- Ways of knowing: induction (reason)
- Ways of knowing: deduction (reason)
- Same data, different hypothesis
- Rejecting anomalous results: confirmation bias
- Are the models and theories that scientists use merely pragmatic instruments or do they actually des
- Science and pseudoscience: alchemy and homeopathy
- A web and hierarchy of disciplines
- How does chemical knowledge change with time?
- Paradigm shifts: phlogiston theory andthe discovery of oxygen
- Shared and personal knowledge
- Ways of knowing: language
- Measurement: the observer effect
- Knowledge and belief
- Chemistry and ethics
- Ways of knowing: imagination
- The knowledge framework in chemistry
- Chemistry and TOK assessment
- Some examples of prescribed essay titles for you to consider
- Some advice
- The assessment criteria
- Bibliography and references
- World Studies Extended Essay
- During the course
- Preparing for the examination
- In the examination
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- Útgáfuár : 2020
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