Efnisyfirlit

• Front Matter
  • Brief Contents
  • Contents
  • Acknowledgements
• 1 What Enables Infants to Acquire Language?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • 1.1 WHAT IS THE EVOLUTIONARY CONTEXT OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT?
    • 1.1.1 Extended period of immaturity
    • 1.1.2 Alloparental care
      • Figure 1.1 Parents recruit the assistance of alloparents (grandparents, friends, teachers, professional caregivers, older siblings, and other kin) to care for their dependent children.
    • 1.1.3 Reciprocal interaction between young infants and caregivers
      • Figure 1.2 In face-to-face dyadic interaction, caregivers and infants use facial expressions, eye gaze, volcalisation, and touch to convey interest and emotion, and to modulate arousal.
    • 1.1.4 Complex social environments
      • Figure 1.3 Humans devote considerable time and effort to teaching their young culturally significant practices. Such natural pedagogy requires the teacher and student to achieve a mutual understanding of what they are doing together and for what reason. Here a grandmother is teaching her grandson how to prepare meat dumplings.
  • 1.2 WHAT ARE THE ABILITIES OF LANGUAGE-READY NEWBORNS?
    • 1.2.1 Attending to others
      • METHODOLOGY BOX 1.1 THE STILL-FACE PARADIGM
      • Figure 1.4 Infants follow their caregivers’ direction of eye gaze and pointing gestures to identify objects of interest to others. During periods of joint attention, infants and caregivers are aware of sharing attention to an object of mutual interest. Here a grandfather directs the attention of his grandson.
    • 1.2.2 Engaging others
    • 1.2.3 Neurological and cognitive immaturity
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key studies
    • Overview articles
    • Books
• 2 What do Infants Learn Before they Speak their First Word?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • Figure 2.1 Timeline of infants’ perception and production of speech during the first year of life.
  • 2.1 WHAT IS THERE TO LEARN?
    • 2.1.1 Speech sounds
    • 2.1.2 Rhythm and intonation
  • 2.2 WHAT ARE THE LINGUISTIC ABILITIES OF NEWBORNS?
    • 2.2.1 Recognising language
      • METHODOLOGY BOX 2.1 METHODS FOR ASSESSING INFANTS’ SPEECH PERCEPTION
        • Figure 2.2 Setup for the headturn preference procedure.
    • 2.2.2 Discriminating between languages
  • 2.3 HOW DO INFANTS DISCOVER THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE?
    • 2.3.1 Phonemic categories
    • 2.3.2 Early vocalisations
      • Figure 2.3 Young infants produce cooing sounds and other vocalisations, such as grunts, that convey their interest and arousal during physical activity.
    • 2.3.3 Tuning into the native language
  • 2.4 HOW DO INFANTS DISCOVER WORDS?
    • Figure 2.4 Sound wave of the sentence These are speech sounds.
    • 2.4.1 Distributional information
    • 2.4.2 Prosodic and phonological cues
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key studies
    • Overview articles
    • Books
• 3 How does Social and Cognitive Development Support Language Development?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • 3.1 WHAT DO INFANTS LEARN FROM INTERACTING WITH OTHERS?
    • 3.1.1 Incorporating the environment into the interaction
      • Figure 3.1 During the first year of life, caregivers and infants begin to engage in triadic forms of interaction that incorporate objects of mutual interest.
      • Figure 3.2 The triangle of referential communication, which involves the child, another person, an outside referent, and their communication about their experiences with the referent. Note that this triangle does not necessarily imply that the referent has to be present in the here and now.
    • 3.1.2 Understanding social signals
    • 3.1.3 Understanding intentions
    • 3.1.4 Learning to imitate
      • Figure 3.3 Young infants readily imitate the vocalisations, facial expressions, and gestures of others.
  • 3.2 WHAT DO INFANTS LEARN ABOUT THE WORLD?
    • 3.2.1 Knowledge about objects
    • 3.2.2 Knowledge about actions and events
  • 3.3 WHAT IS THE ROLE OF GESTURES IN LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT?
    • 3.3.1 Development of gestures
      • Figure 3.4 Pointing, using a variety of hand shapes, is one of the first gestures to appear in infancy.
    • 3.3.2 The relationship between gesture and speech
    • 3.3.3 Gesture as a possible facilitator of language development
      • Figure 3.5 Toddlers use symbolic gestures in bouts of pretend play, often with a toy replica used in place of a real object.
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key studies
    • Overview articles
    • Books
• 4 How do Children Learn Words?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • 4.1 HOW DOES SOCIAL INTERACTION SUPPORT WORD LEARNING?
    • 4.1.1 Inferring word meanings from social cues
      • Figure 4.1 Toddlers exposed to picture books frequently point at objects of interest, which encourages caregivers to label and describe them.
    • 4.1.2 Inferring word meanings from activities and routines
      • Figure 4.2 Children are exposed to words accompanying daily routines such as taking a bath. During such routines, they learn the different contrasts of words belonging to a semantic field.
    • 4.1.3 How caregivers can support word learning
  • 4.2 WHEN DO CHILDREN LEARN THEIR FIRST WORDS?
    • 4.2.1 Word comprehension
    • 4.2.2 Word production
    • 4.2.3 Word production errors
  • 4.3 HOW IS THE CHILD’S VOCABULARY ORGANISED?
    • 4.3.1 Organisation by meaning
    • 4.3.2 Organisation by form
    • 4.3.3 Organisation by morphological relatedness
    • 4.3.4 Organisation by phonological similarity
    • 4.3.5 Learning combinations of words
  • 4.4 HOW DO CHILDREN LEARN SO MANY WORDS IN SUCH SHORT TIME?
    • Figure 4.3 Vocabulary growth over time: the graph shows percentage of known words out of 385 words from the infant form of the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory (see Methodology Box 4.1) for children at various ages. There is controversy about whether such curves exemplify a sudden transition (the ‘vocabulary spurt’) that is indicative of a qualitative change in the underlying learning mechanism, or whether they are better explained as exponential growth curves arising from accelerating incremental accumulation of vocabulary knowledge.
    • 4.4.1 Mapping words to meanings
      • METHODOLOGY BOX 4.1: ESTIMATING TODDLERS’ VOCABULARIES WITH THE MACARTHUR–BATES COMMUNICATIVE DEVELOPMENT INVENTORY
    • 4.4.2 Eliminating unlikely meanings of novel words
    • 4.4.3 Making assumptions about word meanings
      • Figure 4.4 Illustration of stimuli used in word-extension tasks that demonstrate the shape bias, indicated by children selecting the left-most object in the bottom row. Typically, the stimuli are three-dimensional object made of wood, clay, styrofoam, cloth or plastic.
    • 4.4.4 Using syntax to infer meanings of novel words
    • 4.4.5 Using morphology to infer meanings of novel words
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key studies
    • Overview articles
    • Books
• 5 How do Children Learn to Combine and Modify Words?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • 5.1 WHERE DOES GRAMMATICAL KNOWLEDGE COME FROM?
    • 5.1.1 Nativist approaches to grammar
    • 5.1.2 Usage-based approaches to grammar
  • 5.2 CAN INFANTS LEARN ABOUT GRAMMAR BEFORE THEY EVEN START TO SPEAK?
    • 5.2.1 Extracting grammar from sound
    • 5.2.2 Extracting grammar from distributional information
      • Table 5.1 Patterns of long-distance agreement between Russian prepositions and case markers (shown for three masculine nouns). These patterns of agreement provide a direct natural language analogy to the artificial stimuli tested in Gómez (2002).
    • 5.2.3 Generalising to novel words
  • 5.3 HOW DO CHILDREN LEARN TO COMBINE AND MODIFY WORDS?
    • 5.3.1 Item-based learning of grammatical structures
    • 5.3.2 Discovering schemas
    • 5.3.3 Understanding and producing verbs
      • METHODOLOGY BOX 5.1: ELICITED PRODUCTION STUDIES WITH NOVEL WORDS
        • Figure 5.1 Example of the stimuli used for the wug test
        • Figure 5.2 Apparatus used in the elicited production experiments of Brooks and Tomasello (1999a, 1999b).
  • 5.4 WHY DO CHILDREN MAKE GRAMMATICAL ERRORS AND HOW DO THEY STOP?
    • 5.4.1 Errors in production
    • 5.4.2 Errors in comprehension
      • Figure 5.3 Pictures used to test children’s understanding of the scope of universal quantifiers like every.
      • Figure 5.4 One-referent (left panel) and two-referent (right panel) context for the sentence Put the dog on the napkin in the box used in a visual world paradigm.
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key studies
    • Overview articles
    • Books
• 6 What Kind of Language do Children Encounter?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • 6.1 HOW DO WE ADDRESS CHILDREN?
    • Figure 6.1 In some cultures, caregivers have conversations with pre-verbal infants, which may encourage infants to vocalise.
    • 6.1.1 Child-directed speech prosody
      • Figure 6.2 Pitch contour for the sentence Touch the dog with the flower spoken by a mother addressing an adult (left panel) and her 2-year-old child (right panel).
      • METHODOLOGY BOX 6.1: THE CHILD LANGUAGE DATA EXCHANGE SYSTEM (CHILDES)
    • 6.1.2 Child-directed speech phonology
      • Figure 6.3 Mean area in vowel space encompassed by the vowels in the words sheep, shark and shoe spoken by 50 female Scottish adolescents addressing an adult and a 5-month-old infant. The vowel area is larger in CDS than in ADS, which is evidence for hyper-articulation. Note that the vowels /i/ and /u/ are closer in Scottish English than in any other variety of English.
    • 6.1.3 Grammar and content of child-directed speech
    • 6.1.4 Child-directed gestures
      • Figure 6.4 When gesturing to young children, caregivers often convey their enthusiasm through exaggerated hand movements and facial expressions.
  • 6.2 WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF CHILD-DIRECTED SPEECH?
    • 6.2.1 Relevance of child-directed speech
    • 6.2.2 Affective bonding
    • 6.2.3 Regulating the child
    • 6.2.4 Teaching language and other things
    • 6.2.5 The multi-functional nature of child-directed speech
      • Figure 6.5 The language input to second-born children differs considerably from that of first-born children; younger children often learn language by overhearing conversations between caregivers and older children.
  • 6.3 DO DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE INPUT AFFECT LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT?
    • 6.3.1 Cultural effects
      • Figure 6.6 Infants often engage in polyadic interactions involving more than one communicative partner.
    • 6.3.2 Socio-economic and demographic effects
    • 6.3.3 Effects of parental communication styles
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key study
    • Overview articles
• 7 How do Children Learn to Use Language?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • 7.1 HOW DO CHILDREN DEVELOP COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE?
    • Figure 7.1 Children depend on caregivers to teach them the give-and-take of conversation, how to take turns and provide relevant responses.
    • 7.1.1 Perspective taking
      • Figure 7.2 Occluded and mutually visible objects from the director’s (right array) and the other participant’s (left array) perspective.
    • 7.1.2 Pragmatic principles of conversation
    • 7.1.3 Non-literal use of language
    • 7.1.4 Humour and teasing
      • Figure 7.3 Caregivers teach their children to use language as an effective means of conflict resolution.
      • Figure 7.4 Children also learn to use language to harass or bully their peers.
    • 7.1.5 Telling stories
      • Figure 7.5a Child (5;11): When the boy and the dog were asleep, the frog jumped out of the jar. And then the boy and the dog woke up…
      • Figure 7.5b Child (3;4): They’re looking at it and there’s a frog. He’s looking at the jar. Cause his frog is not there…
      • METHODOLOGY BOX 7.1: ELICITING NARRATIVES WITH THE FROG STORIES
  • 7.2 DO BOYS AND GIRLS DIFFER IN HOW THEY LEARN AND USE LANGUAGE?
    • 7.2.1 Gender differences in general language development
    • 7.2.2 Gender differences in the development of communicative styles
      • Figure 7.6 Gender stereotypes suggest that girls are more likely than boys to use language to create bonds of affiliation.
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key studies
    • Overview articles
    • Books
• 8 How does Language Development Affect Cognition?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • 8.1 HOW DOES USING LANGUAGE SUPPORT COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT?
    • 8.1.1 Encoding and retrieving memories
    • 8.1.2 Development of a personal past, present, and future
      • Figure 8.1 Sharing memories with others supports the development of a child’s autobiographical memory.
  • 8.2 DOES IT MATTER WHICH LANGUAGE CHILDREN LEARN?
    • 8.2.1 Language and colour cognition
    • 8.2.2 Language and spatial cognition
      • Figure 8.2 Like maps, languages provide a system for representing locations. Languages may differ considerably in how the system of spatial terms is organised.
      • Figure 8.3 Memory of spatial configurations: participants were placed in front of a table (left) and shown a card with a configuration of a circle and a dot. After 30 seconds, they were rotated 180° towards another table (right) with four cards, and asked to select the card identical to the one they had seen before. Almost all Dutch speakers chose the relative solution, while about two thirds of the Tzeltal speakers chose the absolute solution.
      • Figure 8.4 Examples for different spatial terms in English and Korean.
    • 8.2.3 Language and numerical cognition
    • 8.2.4 Mechanisms behind effects of language on cognition
      • Figure 8.5 Comprehension of metaphors utilises a process of structural alignment whereby the features of one entity, such as a lawyer, are lined up with the features of another entity, such as a shark.
  • 8.3 DOES IT MATTER HOW MANY LANGUAGES CHILDREN LEARN?
    • 8.3.1 Rate of development in two languages
    • 8.3.2 Cognitive effects of learning two languages
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key studies
    • Overview articles
    • Books
• 9 What is the Role of Literacy in Language Development?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • Figure 9.1 Literacy development benefits from a supportive home environment, where children have access to books and other printed media.
  • 9.1 HOW DO CHILDREN LEARN TO READ AND WRITE?
    • 9.1.1 The structure of writing systems
      • Figure 9.2 Dual-route model of reading and word recognition.
    • 9.1.2 Learning to read and write
    • 9.1.3 Literacy instruction methods
      • Figure 9.3 Children benefit from the explicit teaching of phonics, especially when the mapping of spelling to sound is inconsistent.
  • 9.2 HOW DOES LITERACY AFFECT LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT?
    • 9.2.1 Literacy and phonemic awareness
    • 9.2.2 Literacy and grammatical development
    • 9.2.3 Literacy and vocabulary development
      • Table 9.1 Reading builds vocabulary through exposure to rare words. A comparison of written texts and speech shows that written texts contain a substantially more diverse vocabulary.
      • METHODOLOGY BOX 9.1: ASSESSING VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE IN ADULTS
    • 9.2.4 Amplification of individual differences in literacy
  • 9.3 WHY IS LEARNING TO READ DIFFICULT FOR SOME CHILDREN?
    • 9.3.1 Developmental dyslexia
    • 9.3.2 Possible causes of developmental dyslexia
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key studies
    • Overview articles
    • Books
• 10 What Causes Language Impairments?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • 10.1 WHAT ARE THE SYMPTOMS OF SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT?
    • 10.1.1 Deficits in auditory processing
      • METHODOLOGY BOX 10.1: STANDARDISED ASSESSMENT TESTS OF LANGUAGE ABILITY
    • 10.1.2 Deficits in phonological processing
      • Figure 10.1 Stimuli from the picture–word interference paradigm used in Seiger-Gardner and Brooks (2008). Participants were asked to name a picture while at the same time hearing another word which could be either phonologically related (left panel) or unrelated (right panel) to the target picture.
    • 10.1.3 Deficits in lexical processing
    • 10.1.4 Deficits in grammatical processing
    • 10.1.5 Wider repercussions
  • 10.2 WHICH CHILDREN ARE AT RISK FOR SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT?
    • 10.2.1 Genetic basis of language impairment
    • 10.2.2 Neural markers of language impairment
      • Figure 10.2 Cortical (left) and subcortical (right) brain areas for which abnormal development has been found in individuals with SLI.
    • 10.2.3 Diagnosing language impairment
    • 10.2.4 Predicting outcomes for late talkers
  • 10.3 WHAT MIGHT EXPLAIN SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT?
    • 10.3.1 Deficits in grammatical representation
    • 10.3.2 Processing deficits
      • Figure 10.3 Examples of visual stimuli used in the visual world paradigm. Children with SLI display more looks to a phonological competitor, for example, can (see left panel) when asked to click on the candle.
    • 10.3.3 Impaired statistical learning
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key studies
    • Overview articles
    • Books
• 11 How do Deaf Children Acquire Language?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • 11.1 ARE SIGN LANGUAGES ACQUIRED DIFFERENTLY FROM SPOKEN LANGUAGES?
    • 11.1.1 Structure and processing of sign languages
      • Figure 11.1 All sign languages are articulated in the visual/gestural modality using combinations of hand shapes, orientations, locations, and movements, accompanied by facial expressions.
      • Figure 11.2 BSL signs for camera (left) and chocolate (right), which show differing degrees of iconicity/arbitrariness.
    • 11.1.2 Acquisition of sign languages
    • 11.1.3 Age of exposure to sign language and language acquisition
    • 11.1.4 Age of exposure to sign language and cognitive development
  • 11.2 HOW DOES PARTIAL RESTORATION OF HEARING AFFECT LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT?
    • 11.2.1 The mechanics of cochlear implants
      • Figure 11.3 External and internal components of a cochlear implant device.
    • 11.2.2 The importance of sound
      • METHODOLOGY BOX 11.1: ASSESSING SEQUENCE LEARNING ABILITIES
        • Figure 11.4 Schematic diagram of a finite-state grammar used to generate letter strings by following any path from the initial state S1 to the final state S6. For example, this grammar could create strings like TSSXS or PTTTVPXVV, etc.
  • 11.3 CAN DEAF CHILDREN CREATE THEIR OWN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS?
    • 11.3.1 Gestural communication in isolated deaf children
    • 11.3.2 Creation of sign language
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key studies
    • Overview Articles
    • Books
• 12 How does Language Development Affect The Brain?
  • KEY TERMS
  • CHAPTER OUTLINE
  • 12.1 WHICH AREAS OF THE BRAIN PROCESS LANGUAGE?
    • Figure 12.1 Directional terms and lobes of the neocortex.
    • Figure 12.2 Anatomical structures associated with language processing in the neocortex.
    • 12.1.1 Processing speech sounds in the brain
    • 12.1.2 Processing grammar in the brain
    • 12.1.3 Processing meaning in the brain
    • 12.1.4 Connecting the different circuits
      • METHODOLOGY BOX 12.1: STUDYING LANGUAGE PROCESSING IN THE BRAIN
        • Figure 12.3 Electrophysiological measures from the scalp that are time-locked to the presentation of a specific auditory stimulus can provide detailed information about language processing.
  • 12.2 WHEN DOES NEURAL SPECIALISATION FOR LANGUAGE DEVELOP?
    • 12.2.1 Early specialisation of cortical areas for speech processing
    • 12.2.2 Genetic underpinnings of neural specialisation
    • 12.2.3 Adapting the brain to literacy
      • Figure 12.4 Junctions of contours typically occurring in natural visual scenes.
  • 12.3 IS THERE A CRITICAL PERIOD FOR LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT?
    • 12.3.1 Age of recovery from brain injury
    • 12.3.2 Age of exposure to a second language
    • 12.3.3 Neural representation of a second language
      • Figure 12.5 International adoptions allow scientists to explore how the brain adapts to the replacement of a first language by a new language after the adoption.
  • SUMMARY
  • FURTHER READING
    • Key studies
    • Overview Articles
    • Books
• Back Matter
  • Glossary
  • References
  • Name Index
  • Subject Index

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