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• Title Page
• Copyright
• About The Authors
• Detailed Contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Chapter 1. A Preview of Cell Biology
  • 1.1 The Cell Theory: A Brief History
    • Advances in Microscopy Allowed Detailed Studies of Cells
    • The Cell Theory Applies to All Organisms
  • 1.2 The Emergence of Modern Cell Biology
    • The Cytological Strand Deals with Cellular Structure
    • The Biochemical Strand Concerns the Chemistry of Biological Structure and Function
    • The Genetic Strand Focuses on Information Flow
  • 1.3 How Do We Know What We Know?
    • Biological “Facts” May Turn Out to Be Incorrect
    • Experiments Test Specific Hypotheses
    • Model Organisms Play a Key Role in Modern Cell Biology Research
    • Well-Designed Experiments Alter Only One Variable at a Time
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Using Immunofluorescence to Identify Specific Cell Components
  • Human Connections: The Immortal Cells of Henrietta Lacks
• Chapter 2. The Chemistry of the Cell
  • 2.1 The Importance of Carbon
    • Carbon-Containing Molecules Are Stable
    • Carbon-Containing Molecules Are Diverse
    • Carbon-Containing Molecules Can Form Stereoisomers
  • 2.2 The Importance of Water
    • Water Molecules Are Polar
    • Water Molecules Are Cohesive
    • Water Has a High Temperature-Stabilizing Capacity
    • Water Is an Excellent Solvent
  • 2.3 The Importance of Selectively Permeable Membranes
    • A Membrane Is a Lipid Bilayer with Proteins Embedded in It
    • Lipid Bilayers Are Selectively Permeable
  • 2.4 The Importance of Synthesis by Polymerization
    • Macromolecules Are Critical for Cellular Form and Function
    • Cells Contain Three Different Kinds of Macromolecular Polymers
    • Macromolecules Are Synthesized by Stepwise Polymerization of Monomers
  • 2.5 The Importance of Self-Assembly
    • Noncovalent Bonds and Interactions Are Important in the Folding of Macromolecules
    • Many Proteins Spontaneously Fold into Their Biologically Functional State
    • Molecular Chaperones Assist the Assembly of Some Proteins
    • Self-Assembly Also Occurs in Other Cellular Structures
    • The Tobacco Mosaic Virus Is a Case Study in Self-Assembly
    • Self-Assembly Has Limits
    • Hierarchical Assembly Provides Advantages for the Cell
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Determining the Chemical Fingerprint of a Cell Using Mass Spectrometry
  • Human Connections: Taking a Deeper Look: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Chapter 3. The Macromolecules of the Cell
  • 3.1 Proteins
    • The Monomers Are Amino Acids
    • The Polymers Are Polypeptides and Proteins
    • Several Kinds of Bonds and Interactions Are Important in Protein Folding and Stability
    • Protein Structure Depends on Amino Acid Sequence and Interactions
  • 3.2 Nucleic Acids
    • The Monomers Are Nucleotides
    • The Polymers Are DNA and RNA
    • A DNA Molecule Is a Double-Stranded Helix
  • 3.3 Polysaccharides
    • The Monomers Are Monosaccharides
    • The Polymers Are Storage and Structural Polysaccharides
    • Polysaccharide Structure Depends on the Kinds of Glycosidic Bonds Involved
  • 3.4 Lipids
    • Fatty Acids Are the Building Blocks of Several Classes of Lipids
    • Triacylglycerols Are Storage Lipids
    • Phospholipids Are Important in Membrane Structure
    • Glycolipids Are Specialized Membrane Components
    • Steroids Are Lipids with a Variety of Functions
    • Terpenes Are Formed from Isoprene
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Human Connections: Aggregated Proteins and Alzheimer’s
  • Key Technique: Using X-Ray Crystallography to Determine Protein Structure
• Chapter 4. Cells and Organelles
  • 4.1 The Origins of the First Cells
    • Simple Organic Molecules May Have Formed Abiotically in the Young Earth
    • RNA May Have Been the First Informational Molecule
    • Liposomes May Have Defined the First Primitive Protocells
  • 4.2 Basic Properties of Cells
    • The Three Domains of Life Are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes
    • There Are Several Limitations on Cell Size
    • Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes Differ from Each Other in Many Ways
  • 4.3 The Eukaryotic Cell in Overview: Structure and Function
    • The Plasma Membrane Defines Cell Boundaries and Retains Contents
    • The Nucleus Is the Information Center of the Eukaryotic Cell
    • Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Provide Energy for the Cell
    • The Endosymbiont Theory Proposes That Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Were Derived from Bacteria
    • The Endomembrane System Synthesizes Proteins for a Variety of Cellular Destinations
    • Other Organelles Also Have Specific Functions
    • Ribosomes Synthesize Proteins in the Cytoplasm
    • The Cytoskeleton Provides Structure to the Cytoplasm
    • The Extracellular Matrix and Cell Walls Are Outside the Plasma Membrane
  • 4.4 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions: Agents That Invade Cells
    • A Virus Consists of a DNA or RNA Core Surrounded by a Protein Coat
    • Viroids Are Small, Circular RNA Molecules That Can Cause Plant Diseases
    • Prions Are Infectious Protein Molecules
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Human Connections: When Cellular “Breakdown” Breaks Down
  • Key Technique: Using Centrifugation to Isolate Organelles
• Chapter 5. Bioenergetics: The Flow of Energy in the Cell
  • 5.1 The Importance of Energy
    • Cells Need Energy to Perform Six Different Kinds of Work
    • Organisms Obtain Energy Either from Sunlight or from the Oxidation of Chemical Compounds
    • Energy Flows Through the Biosphere Continuously
    • The Flow of Energy Through the Biosphere Is Accompanied by a Flow of Matter
  • 5.2 Bioenergetics
    • Understanding Energy Flow Requires Knowledge of Systems, Heat, and Work
    • The First Law of Thermodynamics States That Energy Is Conserved
    • The Second Law of Thermodynamics States That Reactions Have Directionality
    • Entropy and Free Energy Are Two Means of Assessing Thermodynamic Spontaneity
  • 5.3 Understanding ΔG and Keq
    • The Equilibrium Constant Keq Is a Measure of Directionality
    • ΔG Can Be Calculated Readily
    • The Standard Free Energy Change Is ΔG Measured Under Standard Conditions
    • Summing Up: The Meaning of ΔGʹ and ΔG°ʹ
    • Free Energy Change: Sample Calculations
    • Jumping Beans Provide a Useful Analogy for Bioenergetics
    • Life Requires Steady-State Reactions That Move Toward Equilibrium Without Ever Getting There
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Human Connections: The “Potential” of Food to Provide Energy
  • Key Technique: Measuring How Molecules Bind to One Another Using Isothermal Titration Calorimetry
• Chapter 6. Enzymes: The Catalysts of Life
  • 6.1 Activation Energy and the Metastable State
    • Before a Chemical Reaction Can Occur, the Activation Energy Barrier Must Be Overcome
    • The Metastable State Is a Result of the Activation Barrier
    • Catalysts Overcome the Activation Energy Barrier
  • 6.2 Enzymes as Biological Catalysts
    • Most Enzymes Are Proteins
    • Substrate Binding, Activation, and Catalysis Occur at the Active Site
    • Ribozymes Are Catalytic RNA Molecules
  • 6.3 Enzyme Kinetics
    • Monkeys and Peanuts Provide a Useful Analogy for Understanding Enzyme Kinetics
    • Most Enzymes Display Michaelis–Menten Kinetics
    • What Is the Meaning of V max and Km?
    • Why Are Km and Vmax Important to Cell Biologists?
    • The Double-Reciprocal Plot Is a Useful Means of Visualizing Kinetic Data
    • Enzyme Inhibitors Act Either Irreversibly or Reversibly
  • 6.4 Enzyme Regulation
    • Allosteric Enzymes Are Regulated by Molecules Other than Reactants and Products
    • Allosteric Enzymes Exhibit Cooperative Interactions Between Subunits
    • Enzymes Can Also Be Regulated by the Addition or Removal of Chemical Groups
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Human Connections: Ace Inhibitors: Enzyme Activity as TheDifference Between Life and Death
  • Key Technique: Determining Km and Vmax Using Enzyme Assays
• Chapter 7. Membranes: Their Structure, Function, and Chemistry
  • 7.1 The Functions of Membranes
    • Membranes Define Boundaries and Serve as Permeability Barriers
    • Membranes Contain Specific Proteins and Therefore Have Specific Functions
    • Membrane Proteins Regulate the Transport of Solutes
    • Membrane Proteins Detect and Transmit Electrical and Chemical Signals
    • Membrane Proteins Mediate Cell Adhesion and Cell-to-Cell Communication
  • 7.2 Models of Membrane Structure: An Experimental Perspective
    • Overton and Langmuir: Lipids Are Important Components of Membranes
    • Gorter and Grendel: The Basis of Membrane Structure Is a Lipid Bilayer
    • Davson and Danielli: Membranes Also Contain Proteins
    • Robertson: All Membranes Share a Common Underlying Structure
    • Further Research Revealed Major Shortcomings of the Davson–Danielli Model
    • Singer and Nicolson: A Membrane Consists of a Mosaic of Proteins in a Fluid Lipid Bilayer
    • Unwin and Henderson: Most Membrane Proteins Contain Transmembrane Segments
  • 7.3 Membrane Lipids: The “Fluid” Part of the Model
    • Membranes Contain Several Major Classes of Lipids
    • Fatty Acids Are Essential to Membrane Structure and Function
    • Thin-Layer Chromatography Is an Important Technique for Lipid Analysis
    • Membrane Asymmetry: Most Lipids Are Distributed Unequally Between the Two Monolayers
    • The Lipid Bilayer Is Fluid
    • Most Organisms Can Regulate Membrane Fluidity
    • Lipid Micro- or Nanodomains May Localize Molecules in Membranes
  • 7.4 Membrane Proteins: The “Mosaic” Part of the Model
    • The Membrane Consists of a Mosaic of Proteins: Evidence from Freeze-Fracture Microscopy
    • Membranes Contain Integral, Peripheral, and Lipid-Anchored Proteins
    • Membrane Proteins Can Be Isolated and Analyzed
    • Determining the Three-Dimensional Structure of Membrane Proteins Is Becoming Easier
    • Molecular Biology Has Contributed Greatly to Our Understanding of Membrane Proteins
    • Membrane Proteins Have a Variety of Functions
    • Membrane Proteins Are Oriented Asymmetrically Across the Lipid Bilayer
    • Many Membrane Proteins and Lipids Are Glycosylated
    • Membrane Proteins Vary in Their Mobility
    • The Erythrocyte Membrane Contains an Interconnected Network of Membrane-Associated Proteins
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP)
  • Human Connections: It’s All in the Family
• Chapter 8. Transport Across Membranes: Overcoming the Permeability Barrier
  • 8.1 Cells and Transport Processes
    • Solutes Cross Membranes by Simple Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, and Active Transport
    • The Movement of a Solute Across a Membrane Is Determined by Its Concentration Gradient or Its Electr
    • The Erythrocyte Plasma Membrane Provides Examples of Transport
  • 8.2 Simple Diffusion: Unassisted Movement Down the Gradient
    • Simple Diffusion Always Moves Solutes Toward Equilibrium
    • Osmosis Is the Simple Diffusion of Water Across a Selectively Permeable Membrane
    • Simple Diffusion Is Typically Limited to Small, Uncharged Molecules
    • The Rate of Simple Diffusion Is Directly Proportional to the Concentration Gradient
  • 8.3 Facilitated Diffusion: Protein-Mediated Movement Down the Gradient
    • Carrier Proteins and Channel Proteins Facilitate Diffusion by Different Mechanisms
    • Carrier Proteins Alternate Between Two Conformational States
    • Carrier Proteins Are Analogous to Enzymes in Their Specificity and Kinetics
    • Carrier Proteins Transport Either One or Two Solutes
    • The Erythrocyte Glucose Transporter and Anion Exchange Protein Are Examples of Carrier Proteins
    • Channel Proteins Facilitate Diffusion by Forming Hydrophilic Transmembrane Channels
  • 8.4 Active Transport: Protein-Mediated Movement Up the Gradient
    • The Coupling of Active Transport to an Energy Source May Be Direct or Indirect
    • Direct Active Transport Depends on Four Types of Transport ATPases
    • Indirect Active Transport Is Driven by Ion Gradients
  • 8.5 Examples of Active Transport
    • Direct Active Transport: The Na+/K+ Pump Maintains Electrochemical Ion Gradients
    • Indirect Active Transport: Sodium Symport Drives the Uptake of Glucose
    • The Bacteriorhodopsin Proton Pump Uses Light Energy to Transport Protons
  • 8.6 The Energetics of Transport
    • For Uncharged Solutes, the ΔG of Transport Depends Only on the Concentration Gradient
    • For Charged Solutes, the ΔG of Transport Depends on the Electrochemical Potential
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Expression of Heterologous Membrane Proteins in Frog Oocytes
  • Human Connections: Membrane Transport, Cystic Fibrosis, and the Prospects for Gene Therapy
• Chapter 9. Chemotrophic Energy Metabolism: Glycolysis and Fermentation
  • 9.1 Metabolic Pathways
  • 9.2 ATP: The Primary Energy Molecule in Cells
    • ATP Contains Two Energy-Rich Phosphoanhydride Bonds
    • ATP Hydrolysis Is Exergonic Due to Several Factors
    • ATP Is Extremely Important in Cellular Energy Metabolism
  • 9.3 Chemotrophic Energy Metabolism
    • Biological Oxidations Usually Involve the Removal of Both Electrons and Protons and Are Exergonic
    • Coenzymes Such as NAD+ Serve as Electron Acceptors in Biological Oxidations
    • Most Chemotrophs Meet Their Energy Needs by Oxidizing Organic Food Molecules
    • Glucose Is One of the Most Important Oxidizable Substrates in Energy Metabolism
    • The Oxidation of Glucose Is Highly Exergonic
    • Glucose Catabolism Yields Much More Energy in the Presence of Oxygen Than in Its Absence
    • Based on Their Need for Oxygen, Organisms Are Aerobic, Anaerobic, or Facultative
  • 9.4 Glycolysis: ATP Generation Without the Involvement of Oxygen
    • Glycolysis Generates ATP by Catabolizing Glucose to Pyruvate
  • 9.5 Fermentation
    • In the Absence of Oxygen, Pyruvate Undergoes Fermentation to Regenerate NAD+
    • Fermentation Taps Only a Fraction of the Substrate’s Free Energy but Conserves That Energy Efficie
    • Cancer Cells Ferment Glucose to Lactate Even in the Presence of Oxygen
  • 9.6 Alternative Substrates for Glycolysis
    • Other Sugars and Glycerol Are Also Catabolized by the Glycolytic Pathway
    • Polysaccharides Are Cleaved to Form Sugar Phosphates That Also Enter the Glycolytic Pathway
  • 9.7 Gluconeogenesis
  • 9.8 The Regulation of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
    • Key Enzymes in the Glycolytic and Gluconeogenic Pathways Are Subject to Allosteric Regulation
    • Fructose-2,6-Bisphosphate Is an Important Regulator of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
    • Glycolytic Enzymes May Have Functions Beyond Glycolysis
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Using Isotopic Labeling to Determine the Fate of Atoms in a Metabolic Pathway
  • Human Connections: What Happens to the Sugar?
• Chapter 10. Chemotrophic Energy Metabolism: Aerobic Respiration
  • 10.1 Cellular Respiration: Maximizing ATP Yields
    • Aerobic Respiration Yields Much More Energy than Fermentation Does
    • Respiration Includes Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, the Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport, and
  • 10.2 The Mitochondrion: Where the Action Takes Place
    • Mitochondria Are Often Present Where the ATP Needs Are Greatest
    • Mitochondria Can Adopt Complex Shapes and Vary in Number in Different Cell Types
    • The Outer and Inner Membranes Define Two Separate Mitochondrial Compartments and Three Regions
    • Many Mitochondrial Proteins Originate in the Cytosol
    • Mitochondrial Functions Occur in or on Specific Membranes and Compartments
    • In Bacteria, Respiratory Functions Are Localized to the Plasma Membrane and the Cytoplasm
  • 10.3 The Citric Acid Cycle: Oxidation in the Round
    • Pyruvate Is Converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A by Oxidative Decarboxylation
    • The Citric Acid Cycle Begins with the Entry of Two Carbons from Acetyl CoA
    • Two Oxidative Decarboxylations Then Form NADH and Release CO2
    • Direct Generation of GTP (or ATP) Occurs at One Step in the Citric Acid Cycle
    • The Final Oxidative Reactions of the Citric Acid Cycle Generate FADH2 and NADH
    • Summing Up: The Products of the Citric Acid Cycle Are CO2 , ATP, NADH, and FADH2
    • Several Citric Acid Cycle Enzymes Are Subject to Allosteric Regulation
    • The Citric Acid Cycle Also Plays a Central Role in the Catabolism of Fats and Proteins
    • The Citric Acid Cycle Serves as a Source of Precursors for Anabolic Pathways
    • The Glyoxylate Cycle Converts Acetyl CoA to Carbohydrates in Plants
  • 10.4 Electron Transport: Electron Flow from Coenzymes to Oxygen
    • The Electron Transport Chain Conveys Electrons from Reduced Coenzymes to Oxygen
    • The Electron Transport Chain Consists of Five Kinds of Carriers
    • The Electron Carriers Function in a Sequence Determined by Their Reduction Potentials
    • Most of the Carriers Are Organized into Four Large Respiratory Complexes
    • The Respiratory Complexes Move Freely Within the Inner Membrane
  • 10.5 The Electrochemical Proton Gradient: Key to Energy Coupling
    • Electron Transport and ATP Synthesis Are Coupled Events
    • Coenzyme Oxidation Pumps Enough Protons to Form Three ATP Moleculesper NADH and Two ATP Molecules pe
    • The Chemiosmotic Model Is Affirmed by an Impressive Array of Evidence
  • 10.6 ATP Synthesis: Putting It All Together
    • F1 Particles Have ATP Synthase Activity
    • Proton Translocation Through Fo Drives ATP Synthesis by F1
    • ATP Synthesis by FoF1 Involves Physical Rotation of the Gamma Subunit
  • 10.7 Aerobic Respiration: Summing It All Up
    • The Actual ATP Yield per Glucose during Aerobic Respiration Is Influencedby Several Factors
    • Aerobic Respiration: A Remarkable Process
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Visualizing Cellular Structures with Three-Dimensional Electron Microscopy
  • Human Connections: A Diet Worth Dying For?
• Chapter 11. Phototrophic Energy Metabolism: Photosynthesis
  • 11.1 An Overview of Photosynthesis
    • The Energy Transduction Reactions Convert Solar Energy to Chemical Energy
    • The Carbon Assimilation Reactions Fix Carbon by Reducing Carbon Dioxide
    • The Chloroplast Is the Photosynthetic Organelle in Eukaryotic Cells
    • Chloroplasts Are Composed of Three Membrane Systems
  • 11.2 Photosynthetic Energy Transduction I: Light Harvesting
    • Chlorophyll Is Life’s Primary Link to Sunlight
    • Accessory Pigments Further Expand Access to Solar Energy
    • Light-Gathering Molecules Are Organized into Photosystems and Light-Harvesting Complexes
    • Oxygenic Phototrophs Have Two Types of Photosystems
  • 11.3 Photosynthetic Energy Transduction II: NADPH Synthesis
    • Photosystem II Transfers Electrons from Water to a Plastoquinone
    • The Cytochrome b6/f Complex Transfers Electrons from a Plastoquinol to Plastocyanin
    • Photosystem I Transfers Electrons from Plastocyanin to Ferredoxin
    • Ferredoxin-NADP+ Reductase Catalyzes the Reduction of NADP+
  • 11.4 Photosynthetic Energy Transduction III: ATP Synthesis
    • A Chloroplast ATP Synthase Couples Transport of Protons Across the Thylakoid Membrane to ATP Synthes
    • Cyclic Photophosphorylation Allows a Photosynthetic Cell to Balance NADPH and ATP Synthesis
    • A Summary of the Complete Energy Transduction System
    • Bacteria Use a Photosynthetic Reaction Center and Electron Transport System Similar to Those in Plan
  • 11.5 Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation I: The Calvin Cycle
    • Carbon Dioxide Enters the Calvin Cycle by Carboxylation of Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate
    • 3-Phosphoglycerate Is Reduced to Form Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate
    • Regeneration of Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate Allows Continuous Carbon Assimilation
    • The Complete Calvin Cycle and Its Relation to Photosynthetic Energy Transduction
  • 11.6 Regulation of the Calvin Cycle
    • The Calvin Cycle Is Highly Regulated to Ensure Maximum Efficiency
    • Rubisco Activase Regulates Carbon Fixation by Rubisco
  • 11.7 Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation II: Carbohydrate Synthesis
    • Glucose-1-Phosphate Is Synthesized from Triose Phosphates
    • Biosynthesis of Sucrose Occurs in the Cytosol
    • Biosynthesis of Starch Occurs in the Chloroplast Stroma
    • Photosynthesis Also Produces Reduced Nitrogen and Sulfur Compounds
  • 11.8 Rubisco’s Oxygenase Activity Decreases Photosynthetic Efficiency
    • The Glycolate Pathway Returns Reduced Carbon from Phosphoglycolate to the Calvin Cycle
    • C4 Plants Minimize Photorespiration by Confining Rubisco to CellsContaining High Concentrations of C
    • CAM Plants Minimize Photorespiration and Water Loss by Opening Their Stomata Only at Night
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Determining Absorption and Action Spectra via Spectrophotometry
  • Human Connections: How Do Plants Put On Sunscreen?
• Chapter 12. The Endomembrane System and Protein Sorting
  • 12.1 The Endoplasmic Reticulum
    • The Two Basic Kinds of Endoplasmic Reticulum Differ in Structure and Function
    • Rough ER Is Involved in the Biosynthesis and Processing of Proteins
    • Smooth ER Is Involved in Drug Detoxification, Carbohydrate Metabolism, Calcium Storage, and Steroid
    • The ER Plays a Central Role in the Biosynthesis of Membranes
  • 12.2 The Golgi Apparatus
    • The Golgi Apparatus Consists of a Series of Membrane-Bounded Cisternae
    • Two Models Account for the Flow of Lipids and Proteins Through the Golgi Apparatus
  • 12.3 Roles of the ER and Golgi Apparatus in Protein Processing
    • Protein Folding and Quality Control Take Place Within the ER
    • Initial Glycosylation Occurs in the ER
    • Further Glycosylation Occurs in the Golgi Apparatus
  • 12.4 Roles of the ER and Golgi Apparatus In Protein Trafficking
    • Cotranslational Import Allows Some Polypeptides to Enter the ER as They Are Being Synthesized
    • The Signal Recognition Particle (SRP) Attaches the Ribosome-mRNA-PolypeptideComplex to the ER Membra
    • Proteins Released into the ER Lumen Are Routed to the Golgi Apparatus, Secretory Vesicles, Lysosomes
    • Stop-Transfer Sequences Mediate the Insertion of Integral Membrane Proteins
    • Posttranslational Import Is an Alternative Mechanism for Import into the ER Lumen
  • 12.5 Exocytosis and Endocytosis: Transporting Material Across the Plasma Membrane
    • Secretory Pathways Transport Molecules to the Exterior of the Cell
    • Exocytosis Releases Intracellular Molecules Outside the Cell
    • Endocytosis Imports Extracellular Molecules by Forming Vesicles from the Plasma Membrane
  • 12.6 Coated Vesicles in Cellular Transport Processes
    • Clathrin-Coated Vesicles Are Surrounded by Lattices Composed of Clathrin and Adaptor Protein
    • The Assembly of Clathrin Coats Drives the Formation of Vesicles from the Plasma Membrane and TGN
    • COPI- and COPII-Coated Vesicles Travel Between the ER and Golgi Apparatus Cisternae
    • SNARE Proteins Mediate Fusion Between Vesicles and Target Membranes
  • 12.7 Lysosomes and Cellular Digestion
    • Lysosomes Isolate Digestive Enzymes from the Rest of the Cell
    • Lysosomes Develop from Endosomes
    • Lysosomal Enzymes Are Important for Several Different Digestive Processes
    • Lysosomal Storage Diseases Are Usually Characterized by the Accumulation of Indigestible Material
    • The Plant Vacuole: A Multifunctional Digestive Organelle
  • 12.8 Peroxisomes
    • Most Peroxisomal Functions Are Linked to Hydrogen Peroxide Metabolism
    • Plant Cells Contain Types of Peroxisomes Not Found in Animal Cells
    • Peroxisome Biogenesis Can Occur by Division of Preexisting Peroxisomes or by Vesicle Fusion
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Visualizing Vesicles at the Cell Surface Using Total Internal Reflection (TIRF) Micro
  • Human Connections: A Bad Case of the Munchies? (Autophagy In Inflammatory Bowel Disease)
• Chapter 13. Cytoskeletal Systems
  • 13.1 Major Structural Elements of the Cytoskeleton
    • Eukaryotes Have Three Basic Types of Cytoskeletal Elements
    • Bacteria Have Cytoskeletal Systems That Are Structurally Similar to Those in Eukaryotes
    • The Cytoskeleton Is Dynamically Assembled and Disassembled
  • 13.2 Microtubules
    • Two Types of Microtubules Are Responsible for Many Functions in the Cell
    • Tubulin Heterodimers Are the Protein Building Blocks of Microtubules
    • Microtubules Can Form as Singlets, Doublets, or Triplets
    • Microtubules Form by the Addition of Tubulin Dimers at Their Ends
    • Addition of Tubulin Dimers Occurs More Quickly at the Plus Ends of Microtubules
    • Drugs Can Affect the Assembly and Stability of Microtubules
    • GTP Hydrolysis Contributes to the Dynamic Instability of Microtubules
    • Microtubules Originate from Microtubule-Organizing Centers Within the Cell
    • MTOCs Organize and Polarize Microtubules Within Cells
    • Microtubule Stability Is Tightly Regulated in Cells by a Variety of Microtubule-Binding Proteins
  • 13.3 Microfilaments
    • Actin Is the Protein Building Block of Microfilaments
    • Different Types of Actin Are Found in Cells
    • G-Actin Monomers Polymerize into F-Actin Microfilaments
    • Specific Drugs Affect Polymerization of Microfilaments
    • Cells Can Dynamically Assemble Actin into a Variety of Structures
    • Actin-Binding Proteins Regulate the Polymerization, Length, and Organization of Microfilaments
    • Proteins That Link Actin to Membranes
    • Phospholipids and Rho Family GTPases Regulate Where and When Actin-Based Structures Assemble
  • 13.4 Intermediate Filaments
    • Intermediate Filament Proteins Are Tissue Specific
    • Intermediate Filaments Assemble from Fibrous Subunits
    • Intermediate Filaments Confer Mechanical Strength on Tissues
    • The Cytoskeleton Is a Mechanically Integrated Structure
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Studying the Dynamic Cytoskeleton
  • Human Connections: When Actin Kills
• Chapter 14. Cellular Movement: Motility and Contractility
  • 14.1 Microtubule-Based Movement Inside Cells: Kinesins and Dyneins
    • Motor Proteins Move Cargoes Along MTs During Axonal Transport
    • Classic Kinesins Move Toward the Plus Ends of Microtubules
    • Kinesins Are a Large Family of Proteins
    • Dyneins Are Found in Axonemes and the Cytosol
    • Microtubule Motors Direct Vesicle Transport and Shape the Endomem-brane System
  • 14.2 Microtubule-Based Cell Motility: Cilia And Flagella
    • Cilia and Flagella Are Common Motile Appendages of Eukaryotic Cells
    • Cilia and Flagella Consist of an Axoneme Connected to a Basal Body
    • Doublet Sliding Within the Axoneme Causes Cilia and Flagella to Bend
  • 14.3 Microfilament-Based Movement Inside Cells: Myosins
    • Myosins Are a Large Family of Actin-Based Motors with Diverse Roles in Cell Motility
    • Many Myosins Move Along Actin Filaments in Short Steps
  • 14.4 Microfilament-Based Motility: Muscle Cells In Action
    • Skeletal Muscle Cells Contain Thin and Thick Filaments
    • Sarcomeres Contain Ordered Arrays of Actin, Myosin, and Accessory Proteins
    • The Sliding-Filament Model Explains Muscle Contraction
    • Cross-Bridges Hold Filaments Together, and ATP Powers Their Movement
    • The Regulation of Muscle Contraction Depends on Calcium
    • The Coordinated Contraction of Cardiac Muscle Cells Involves Electrical Coupling
    • Smooth Muscle Is More Similar to Nonmuscle Cells than to Skeletal Muscle
  • 14.5 Microfilament-Based Motility In Nonmuscle Cells
    • Cell Migration via Lamellipodia Involves Cycles of Protrusion, Attachment, Translocation, and Detach
    • Chemotaxis Is a Directional Movement in Response to a Graded Chemical Stimulus
    • Amoeboid Movement Involves Cycles of Gelation and Solation of Actin
    • Actin-Based Motors Move Components Within the Cytosol of Some Cells
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Watching Motors Too Small to See
  • Human Connections: Dyneins Help Us Tell Left From Right
• Chapter 15. Beyond the Cell: Cell Adhesions, Cell Junctions, and Extracellular Structures
  • 15.1 Cell-Cell Junctions
    • Adhesive Junctions Link Adjoining Cells
    • Transient Cell-Cell Adhesions Are Important for Many Cellular Events
    • Tight Junctions Prevent the Movement of Molecules Across Cell Layers
    • Gap Junctions Allow Direct Electrical and Chemical Communication Between Cells
  • 15.2 The Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
    • Collagens Are Responsible for the Strength of the Extracellular Matrix
    • Elastins Impart Elasticity and Flexibility to the Extracellular Matrix
    • Collagen and Elastin Fibers Are Embedded in a Matrix of Proteoglycans
    • Free Hyaluronate Lubricates Joints and Facilitates Cell Migration
    • Adhesive Glycoproteins Anchor Cells to the Extracellular Matrix
    • Fibronectins Bind Cells to the ECM and Foster Cellular Movement
    • Laminins Bind Cells to the Basal Lamina
    • Integrins Are Cell Surface Receptors That Bind ECM Components
    • The Dystrophin/Dystroglycan Complex Stabilizes Attachments of Muscle Cells to the ECM
  • 15.3 The Plant Cell Surface
    • Cell Walls Provide a Structural Framework and Serve as a Permeability Barrier
    • The Plant Cell Wall Is a Network of Cellulose Microfibrils, Polysaccharides, and Glycoproteins
    • Cell Walls Are Synthesized in Several Discrete Stages
    • Plasmodesmata Permit Direct Cell-Cell Communication Through the Cell Wall
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Human Connections: The Costly Effects of Weak Adhesion
  • Key Technique: Building an ECM from Scratch
• Chapter 16. The Structural Basis of Cellular Information: DNA, Chromosomes, and the Nucleus
  • 16.1 Chemical Nature of the Genetic Material
    • The Discovery of DNA Led to Conflicting Proposals Concerning the Chemical Nature of Genes
    • Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty Showed That DNA Is the Genetic Material of Bacteria
    • Hershey and Chase Showed That DNA Is the Genetic Material of Viruses
    • RNA Is the Genetic Material in Some Viruses
  • 16.2 DNA Structure
    • Chargaff ’s Rules Reveal That A = T and G = C
    • Watson and Crick Discovered That DNA Is a Double Helix
    • DNA Can Be Interconverted Between Relaxed and Supercoiled Forms
    • The Two Strands of a DNA Double Helix Can Be Denatured and Renatured
  • 16.3 DNA Packaging
    • Bacteria Package DNA in Bacterial Chromosomes and Plasmids
    • Eukaryotes Package DNA in Chromatin and Chromosomes
    • Nucleosomes Are the Basic Unit of Chromatin Structure
    • A Histone Octamer Forms the Nucleosome Core
    • Nucleosomes Are Packed Together to Form Chromatin Fibers and Chromosomes
    • Changes in Histones and Chromatin Remodeling Proteins Can Alter Chromatin Packing
    • Chromosomal DNA Contains Euchromatin and Heterochromatin
    • Some Heterochromatin Plays a Structural Role in Chromosomes
    • Chromosomes Can Be Identified by Unique Banding Patterns
    • Eukaryotic Chromosomes Contain Large Amounts of Repeated DNA Sequences
    • Eukaryotes Package Some of Their DNA in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
  • 16.4 The Nucleus
    • A Double-Membrane Nuclear Envelope Surrounds the Nucleus
    • Molecules Enter and Exit the Nucleus Through Nuclear Pores
    • The Nucleus Is Mechanically Integrated with the Rest of the Cell
    • Chromatin Is Located Within the Nucleus in a Nonrandom Fashion
    • The Nucleolus Is Involved in Ribosome Formation
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: FISHing for Specific Sequences
  • Human Connections: Lamins and Premature Aging
• Chapter 17. DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination
  • 17.1 DNA Replication
    • DNA Synthesis Occurs During S Phase
    • DNA Replication Is Semiconservative
    • DNA Replication Is Usually Bidirectional
    • Replication Initiates at Specialized DNA Elements
    • DNA Polymerases Catalyze the Elongation of DNA Chains
    • DNA Is Synthesized as Discontinuous Segments That Are Joined Together by DNA Ligase
    • In Bacteria, Proofreading Is Performed by the 3'→5' Exonuclease Activity of DNA Polymerase
    • RNA Primers Initiate DNA Replication
    • The DNA Double Helix Must Be Locally Unwound During Replication
    • DNA Unwinding and DNA Synthesis Are Coordinated on Both Strands via the Replisome
    • Eukaryotes Disassemble and Reassemble Nucleosomes as Replication Proceeds
    • Telomeres Solve the DNA End-Replication Problem
  • 17.2 DNA Damage and Repair
    • Mutations Can Occur Spontaneously During Replication
    • Mutagens Can Induce Mutations
    • DNA Repair Systems Correct Many Kinds of DNA Damage
  • 17.3 Homologous Recombination and Mobile Genetic Elements
    • Homologous Recombination Is Initiated by Double-Strand Breaks in DNA
    • Transposons Are Mobile Genetic Elements
    • Transposons Differ Based on Their Autonomy and Mechanism of Movement
    • Bacterial DNA-Only Transposons Can Be Composite or Noncomposite
    • Eukaryotes Also Have DNA-Only Transposons
    • Retrotransposons
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Human Connections: Children of The Moon
  • Key Technique: CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing
• Chapter 18. Gene Expression: I. Transcription
  • 18.1 The Directional Flow of Genetic Information
    • Transcription and Translation Involve Many of the Same Components in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
    • Where Transcription and Translation Occur Differs in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
    • In Some Cases RNA Is Reversed Transcribed into DNA
  • 18.2 Mechanisms of Transcription
    • Transcription Involves Four Stages: RNA Polymerase Binding, Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
    • Bacterial Transcription Involves ˜ Factor Binding, Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
    • Transcription in Eukaryotic Cells Has Additional Complexity Compared with Prokaryotes
    • RNA Polymerases I, II, and III Carry Out Transcription in the Eukaryotic Nucleus
    • Three Classes of Promoters Are Found in Eukaryotic Nuclear Genes, One for Each Type of RNA Polymeras
    • General Transcription Factors Are Involved in the Transcription of All Nuclear Genes
    • Elongation, Termination, and RNA Cleavage Are Involved in Completing Eukaryotic RNA Synthesis
  • 18.3 RNA Processing and Turnover
    • The Nucleolus Is Involved in Ribosome Formation
    • Ribosomal RNA Processing Involves Cleavage of Multiple rRNAs from a Common Precursor
    • Transfer RNA Processing Involves Removal, Addition, and Chemical Modification of Nucleotides
    • Messenger RNA Processing in Eukaryotes Involves Capping, Addition of Poly(A), and Removal of Introns
    • Spliceosomes Remove Introns from Pre-mRNA
    • Some Introns Are Self-Splicing
    • The Existence of Introns Permits Alternative Splicing and Exon Shuffling
    • Cells Localize Nuclear RNAs in Several Types of Processing Centers
    • Nucleic Acid Editing Allows Sequences to Be Altered
    • The C-Terminal Domain of RNA Polymerase II Coordinates RNA Processing
    • Nuclear Export of Mature mRNA
    • Most mRNA Molecules Have a Relatively Short Life Span
    • The Abundance of mRNA Allows Amplification of Genetic Information
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Hunting for DNA-Protein Interactions
  • Human Connections: Death by Fungus (Amanita PhalloidesPoisoning)
• Chapter 19. Gene Expression: II. The Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis
  • 19.1 The Genetic Code
    • The Genetic Code Is a Triplet Code
    • The Genetic Code Is Degenerate and Nonoverlapping
    • Messenger RNA Guides the Synthesis of Polypeptide Chains
    • The Codon Dictionary Was Established Using Synthetic RNA Polymers and Triplets
    • Of the 64 Possible Codons in Messenger RNA, 61 Encode Amino Acids
    • The Genetic Code Is (Nearly) Universal
    • Codon Usage Bias
  • 19.2 Translation: The Cast of Characters
    • Ribosomes Carry Out Polypeptide Synthesis
    • Transfer RNA Molecules Bring Amino Acids to the Ribosome
    • Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases Link Amino Acids to the Correct Transfer RNAs
    • Messenger RNA Brings Polypeptide Coding Information to the Ribosome
    • Protein Factors Are Required for Translational Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
  • 19.3 The Mechanism of Translation
    • Translational Initiation Requires Initiation Factors, Ribosomal Subunits, mRNA, and Initiator tRNA
    • Chain Elongation Involves Cycles of Aminoacyl tRNA Binding, Peptide Bond Formation, and Translocatio
    • Most mRNAs Are Read by Many Ribosomes Simultaneously
    • Termination of Polypeptide Synthesis Is Triggered by Release Factors That Recognize Stop Codons
    • Polypeptide Folding Is Facilitated by Molecular Chaperones
    • Protein Synthesis Typically Utilizes a Substantial Fraction of a Cell’s Energy Budget
    • A Summary of Translation
  • 19.4 Mutations and Translation
    • Suppressor tRNAs Overcome the Effects of Some Mutations
    • Nonsense-Mediated Decay and Nonstop Decay Promote the Destruction of Defective mRNAs
  • 19.5 Posttranslational Processing
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Human Connections: To Catch a Killer: The Problem of Antibiotic Resistance In Bacteria
  • Key Technique: Protein Localization Using Fluorescent Fusion Proteins
• Chapter 20. The Regulation of Gene Expression
  • 20.1 Bacterial Gene Regulation
    • Catabolic and Anabolic Pathways Are Regulated Through Induction and Repression, Respectively
    • The Genes Involved in Lactose Catabolism Are Organized into an Inducible Operon
    • The lac Operon Is Negatively Regulated by the lac Repressor
    • Studies of Mutant Bacteria Revealed How the lac Operon Is Organized
    • Catabolite Activator Protein (CAP) Positively Regulates the lac Operon
    • The lac Operon Is an Example of the Dual Control of Gene Expression
    • The Structure of the lac Repressor/Operator Complex Confirms the Operon Model
    • The Genes Involved in Tryptophan Synthesis Are Organized into a Repressible Operon
    • Sigma Factors Determine Which Sets of Genes Can Be Expressed
    • Attenuation Allows Transcription to Be Regulated After the Initiation Step
    • Riboswitches Allow Transcription and Translation to Be Controlled by Small-Molecule Interactions wit
    • The CRISPR/Cas System Protects Bacteria Against Viral Infection
  • 20.2 Eukaryotic Gene Regulation: Genomic Control
    • Multicellular Eukaryotes Are Composed of Numerous Specialized Cell Types
    • Eukaryotic Gene Expression Is Regulated at Five Main Levels
    • The Cells of a Multicellular Organism Usually Contain the Same Set of Genes
    • Gene Amplification and Deletion Can Alter the Genome
    • DNA Rearrangements Can Alter the Genome
    • Chromatin Decondensation Is Involved in Genomic Control
    • DNA Methylation Is Associated with Inactive Regions of the Genome
  • 20.3 Eukaryotic Gene Regulation: Transcriptional Control
    • Different Sets of Genes Are Transcribed in Different Cell Types
    • Proximal Control Elements Lie Close to the Promoter
    • Enhancers and Silencers Are DNA Elements Located at Variable Distances from the Promoter
    • Coactivators Mediate the Interaction Between Regulatory Transcription Factors and the RNA Polymerase
    • Multiple DNA Control Elements and Transcription Factors Act in Combination
    • DNA-Binding and Activation Domains of Regulatory Transcription Factors Are Functionally Separable
    • Several Common Types of Transcription Factors Bind to DNA and Activate Transcription
    • DNA Response Elements Coordinate the Expression of Nonadjacent Genes
    • Steroid Hormone Receptors Act as Transcription Factors That Bind to Hormone Response Elements
    • CREBs and STATs Are Examples of Transcription Factors Activated by Phosphorylation
    • The Heat Shock Response Element Coordinates Stress Responses
    • Homeotic Genes Encode Transcription Factors That Regulate Embryonic Development
  • 20.4 Eukaryotic Gene Regulation: Posttranscriptional Control
    • Control of RNA Processing and Nuclear Export Follows Transcription
    • Translation Rates Can Be Controlled by Initiation Factors and Translational Repressors
    • Translation Can Also Be Controlled by Regulation of mRNA Degradation
    • RNA Interference Utilizes Small RNAs to Silence Gene Expression
    • MicroRNAs Produced by Normal Cellular Genes Silence the Translation of mRNAs
    • Piwi-Interacting RNAs Are Small Regulatory RNAs That Protect the Germline of Eukaryotes
    • Long Noncoding RNAs Play a Variety of Roles in Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
    • Posttranslational Control Involves Modifications of Protein Structure, Function, and Degradation
    • Ubiquitin Targets Proteins for Degradation by Proteasomes
    • A Summary of Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Human Connections: The Epigenome: Methylation and Disease
  • Key Technique: Gene Knockdown via RNAi
• Chapter 21. Molecular Biology Techniques for Cell Biology
  • 21.1 Analyzing, Manipulating, and Cloning DNA
    • PCR Is Widely Used to Clone Genes
    • Restriction Endonucleases Cleave DNA Molecules at Specific Sites
    • Gel Electrophoresis Allows DNA to Be Separated by Size
    • Restriction Mapping Can Characterize DNA
    • Southern Blotting Identifies Specific DNAs from a Mixture
    • Restriction Enzymes Allow Production of Recombinant DNA
    • DNA Cloning Can Use Bacterial Cloning Vectors
    • Genomic and cDNA Libraries Are Both Useful for DNA Cloning
  • 21.2 Sequencing and Analyzing Genomes
    • Rapid Procedures Exist for DNA Sequencing
    • Whole Genomes Can Be Sequenced
    • Comparative Genomics Allows Comparison of Genomes and Genes Within Them
    • The Field of Bioinformatics Helps Decipher Genomes
    • Tiny Differences in Genome Sequence Distinguish People from One Another
  • 21.3 Analyzing RNA and Proteins
    • Several Techniques Allow Detection of mRNAs in Time and Space
    • The Transcription of Thousands of Genes Can Be Assessed Simultaneously
    • Proteins Can Be Studied Using Electrophoresis
    • Antibodies Can Be Used to Study Specific Proteins
    • Proteins Can Be Isolated by Size, Charge, or Affinity
    • Proteins Can Be Identified from Complex Mixtures Using Mass Spectrometry
    • Protein Function Can Be Studied Using Molecular Biology Techniques
    • Protein-Protein Interactions Can Be Studied in a Variety of Ways
  • 21.4 Analyzing and Manipulating Gene Function
    • Transgenic Organisms Carry Foreign Genes That Are Passed on to Subsequent Generations
    • Transcriptional Reporters Are Useful for Studying Regulation of Gene Expression
    • The Role of Specific Genes Can Be Assessed By Identifying Mutations and by Knockdown
    • Genetic Engineering Can Produce Valuable Proteins That Are Otherwise Difficult to Obtain
    • Food Crops Can Be Genetically Modified
    • Gene Therapies Are Being Developed for the Treatment of Human Diseases
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
  • Human Connections: More Than Your Fingertips: Identifying Genetic “Fingerprints”
• Chapter 22. Signal Transduction Mechanisms: I. Electrical and Synaptic Signaling in Neurons
  • 22.1 Neurons and Membrane Potential
    • Neurons Are Specially Adapted to Transmit Electrical Signals
    • Neurons Undergo Changes in Membrane Potential
    • Neurons Display Electrical Excitability
    • Resting Membrane Potential Depends on Ion Concentrations and Selective Membrane Permeability
    • The Nernst Equation Describes the Relationship Between Membrane Potential and Ion Concentration
    • Steady-State Ion Concentrations Affect Resting Membrane Potential
    • The Goldman Equation Describes the Combined Effects of Ions on Membrane Potential
  • 22.2 Electrical Excitability and the Action Potential
    • Patch Clamping and Molecular Biological Techniques Allow Study of Single Ion Channels
    • Specific Domains of Voltage-Gated Channels Act as Sensors and Inactivators
    • Action Potentials Propagate Electrical Signals Along an Axon
    • Action Potentials Involve Rapid Changes in the Membrane Potential of the Axon
    • Action Potentials Result from the Rapid Movement of Ions Through Axonal Membrane Channels
    • Action Potentials Are Propagated Along the Axon Without Losing Strength
    • The Myelin Sheath Acts Like an Electrical Insulator Surrounding the Axon
  • 22.3 Synaptic Transmission and Signal Integration
    • Neurotransmitters Relay Signals Across Nerve Synapses
    • Elevated Calcium Levels Stimulate Secretion of Neurotransmitters from Presynaptic Neurons
    • Secretion of Neurotransmitters Involves the Docking and Fusion of Vesicles with the Plasma Membrane
    • Neurotransmitters Are Detected by Specific Receptors on Postsynaptic Neurons
    • Neurotransmitters Must Be Inactivated Shortly After Their Release
    • Postsynaptic Potentials Integrate Signals from Multiple Neurons
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Patch Clamping
  • Human Connections: The Toxic Price of the Fountain of Youth
• Chapter 23. Signal Transduction Mechanisms: II. Messengers and Receptors
  • 23.1 Chemical Signals and Cellular Receptors
    • Chemical Signaling Involves Several Key Components
    • Receptor Binding Involves Quantitative Interactions Between Ligands and Their Receptors
    • Cells Can Amplify Signals Once They Are Received
    • Cell-Cell Signals Act Through a Limited Number of Receptors and Signal Transduction Pathways
  • 23.2 G Protein–Coupled Receptors
    • G Protein–Coupled Receptors Act via Hydrolysis of GTP
    • Cyclic AMP Is a Second Messenger Whose Production Is Regulated by Some G Proteins
    • Disruption of G Protein Signaling Causes Human Disease
    • Many G Proteins Act Through Inositol Trisphosphate and Diacylglycerol
    • The Release of Calcium Ions Is a Key Event in Many Signaling Processes
  • 23.3 Enzyme-Coupled Receptors
    • Growth Factors Often Bind Protein Kinase-Associated Receptors
    • Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Aggregate and Undergo Autophosphorylation
    • Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Initiate a Signal Transduction Cascade Involving Ras and MAP Kinase
    • The Key Steps in RTK Signaling Can Be Dissected Using Mutants
    • Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Activate a Variety of Other Signaling Pathways
    • Other Growth Factors Transduce Their Signals via Receptor Serine-Threonine Kinases
    • Other Enzyme-Coupled Receptors Families
  • 23.4 Putting It All Together: Signal Integration
    • Scaffolding Complexes Can Facilitate Cell Signaling
    • Different Signaling Pathways Are Integrated Through Crosstalk
  • 23.5 Hormones and Other Long-Range Signals
    • Hormones Can Be Classified by Their Chemical Properties
    • The Endocrine System Controls Multiple Signaling Pathways to Regulate Glucose Levels
    • Steroid Hormones Bind Hormones in the Cytosol and Carry Them into the Nucleus
    • Gases Can Act as Cell Signals
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Calcium Indicators and Ionophores
  • Human Connections: The Gas That Prevents a Heart Attack
• Chapter 24. The Cell Cycle and Mitosis
  • 24.1 Overview of the Cell Cycle
  • 24.2 Nuclear and Cell Division
    • Mitosis Is Subdivided into Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase
    • The Mitotic Spindle Is Responsible for Chromosome Movements During Mitosis
    • Cytokinesis Divides the Cytoplasm
    • Bacteria and Eukaryotic Organelles Divide in a Different Manner from Eukaryotic Cells
  • 24.3 Regulation of the Cell Cycle
    • Cell Cycle Length Varies Among Different Cell Types
    • Cell Cycle Progression Is Controlled at Several Key Transition Points
    • Cell Fusion Experiments and Cell Cycle Mutants Identified Molecules That Control the Cell Cycle
    • The Cell Cycle Is Controlled by Cyclin-Dependent Kinases (Cdks)
    • Cdk-Cyclin Complexes Are Tightly Regulated
    • The Anaphase-Promoting Complex Allows Exit from Mitosis
    • Checkpoint Pathways Monitor Key Steps in the Cell Cycle
  • 24.4 Growth Factors and Cell Proliferation
    • Stimulatory Growth Factors Activate the Ras Pathway
    • Stimulatory Growth Factors Can Also Activate the PI 3-Kinase–Akt Pathway
    • Inhibitory Growth Factors Act Through Cdk Inhibitors
    • Putting It All Together: The Cell Cycle Regulation Machine
  • 24.5 Apoptosis
    • Apoptosis Is Triggered by Death Signals or Withdrawal of Survival Factors
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Key Technique: Measuring Cells Millions at a Time
  • Human Connections: What do Ethnobotany and Cancer Have in Common?
• Chapter 25. Sexual Reproduction, Meiosis, and Genetic Recombination
  • 25.1 Sexual Reproduction
    • Sexual Reproduction Produces Genetic Variety
    • Gametes Are Haploid Cells Specialized for Sexual Reproduction
  • 25.2 Meiosis
    • The Life Cycles of Sexual Organisms Have Diploid and Haploid Phases
    • Meiosis Converts One Diploid Cell into Four Haploid Cells
    • Meiosis I Produces Two Haploid Cells That Have Chromosomes Composed of Sister Chromatids
    • Meiosis II Resembles a Mitotic Division
    • Defects in Meiosis Lead to Nondisjunction
    • Sperm and Egg Cells Are Generated by Meiosis Accompanied by Cell Differentiation
    • Meiotic Maturation of Oocytes Is Tightly Regulated
  • 25.3 Genetic Variability: Segregation and Assortment of Alleles
    • Meiosis Generates Genetic Diversity
    • Information Specifying Recessive Traits Can Be Present Without Being Displayed
    • Alleles of Each Gene Segregate from Each Other During Gamete Formation
    • Alleles of Each Gene Segregate Independently of the Alleles of Other Genes
    • Chromosome Behavior Explains the Laws of Segregation and Independent Assortment
    • The DNA Molecules of Homologous Chromosomes Have Similar Base Sequences
  • 25.4 Genetic Variability: Recombination and Crossing Over
    • Chromosomes Contain Groups of Linked Genes That Are Usually Inherited Together
    • Homologous Chromosomes Exchange Segments During Crossing Over
    • Gene Locations Can Be Mapped by Measuring Recombination Frequencies
  • 25.5 Genetic Recombination in Bacteria and Viruses
    • Co-infection of Bacterial Cells with Related Bacteriophages Can Lead to Genetic Recombination
    • Recombination in Bacteria Can Occur via Transformation or Transduction
    • Conjugation Is a Modified Sexual Activity That Facilitates Genetic Recombination in Bacteria
  • 25.6 Mechanisms of Homologous Recombination
    • DNA Breakage and Exchange Underlie Homologous Recombination Between Chromosomes
    • The Synaptonemal Complex Facilitates Homologous Recombination During Meiosis
    • Homologous Recombination Between Chromosomes Relies on High-Fidelity DNA Repair
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Human Connections: When Meiosis Goes Awry
  • Key Technique: Using Mendel’s Rules to Predict Human Disease
• Chapter 26. Cancer Cells
  • 26.1 How Cancers Arise
    • Tumors Arise When the Balance Between Cell Division and Cell Differentiation or Death Is Disrupted
    • Cancer Cell Proliferation Is Anchorage Independent and Insensitive to Population Density
    • Cancer Cells Are Immortalized by Mechanisms That Maintain Telomere Length
    • Defects in Signaling Pathways, Cell Cycle Controls, and Apoptosis Contribute to Cancer
    • Cancer Arises Through a Multistep Process Involving Initiation, Promotion, and Tumor Progression
  • 26.2 How Cancers Spread
    • Angiogenesis Is Required for Tumors to Grow Beyond a Few Millimeters in Diameter
    • Blood Vessel Growth Is Controlled by a Balance Between Angiogenesis Activators and Inhibitors
    • Cancer Cells Spread by Invasion and Metastasis
    • Changes in Cell Adhesion, Motility, and Protease Production Promote Metastasis
    • Relatively Few Cancer Cells Survive the Voyage Through the Bloodstream
    • Blood Flow and Organ-Specific Factors Determine Sites of Metastasis
    • The Immune System Influences the Growth and Spread of Cancer Cells
    • The Tumor Microenvironment Influences Tumor Growth, Invasion, and Metastasis
  • 26.3 What Causes Cancer?
    • Epidemiological Data Have Allowed Many Causes of Cancer to Be Identified
    • Errors in DNA Replication or Repair Explain Many Cancers
    • Inborn Errors Explain Some Cancers
    • Many Chemicals Can Cause Cancer, Often After Metabolic Activation in the Liver
    • DNA Mutations Triggered by Chemical Carcinogens Lead to Cancer
    • Ionizing and Ultraviolet Radiation Also Cause DNA Mutations That Lead to Cancer
    • Viruses and Other Infectious Agents Trigger the Development of Some Cancers
  • 26.4 Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes
    • Oncogenes Are Genes Whose Products Can Trigger the Development of Cancer
    • Proto-oncogenes Are Converted into Oncogenes by Several Distinct Mechanisms
    • Most Oncogenes Encode Components of Growth-Signaling Pathways
    • Tumor Suppressor Genes Are Genes Whose Loss or Inactivation Can Lead to Cancer
    • The RB Tumor Suppressor Gene Was Discovered by Studying Families with Hereditary Retinoblastoma
    • The p53 Tumor Suppressor Gene Is the Most Frequently Mutated Gene in Human Cancers
    • The APC Tumor Suppressor Gene Encodes a Protein That Inhibits the Wnt Signaling Pathway
    • Inactivation of Some Tumor Suppressor Genes Leads to Genetic Instability
    • Cancers Develop by the Stepwise Accumulation of Mutations Involving Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor G
    • Epigenetic Changes in Gene Expression Influence the Properties of Cancer Cells
    • Summing Up: Carcinogenesis and the Hallmarks of Cancer
  • 26.5 Diagnosis, Screening, and Treatment
    • Cancer Is Diagnosed by Microscopic and Molecular Examination of Tissue Specimens
    • Screening Techniques for Early Detection Can Prevent Cancer Deaths
    • Surgery, Radiation, and Chemotherapy Are Standard Treatments for Cancer
    • Molecular Targeting Can Attack Cancer Cells More Specifically Than Chemotherapy
    • Using the Immune System to Target Cancer Cells
    • Cancer Treatments Can Be Tailored to Individual Patients
  • Summary of Key Points
  • Problem Set
  • Human Connections: Molecular Sleuthing in Cancer Diagnosis
  • Key Technique: Targeting Molecules in the Fight Against Cancer
• Appendix Visualizing Cells And Molecules
• Answer Key To Concept Check And Key Technique Questions
• Glossary
• Photo, Illustration, And Text Credits
• Index
  • A
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  • C
  • D
  • E
  • F
  • G
  • H
  • I
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  • K
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  • N
  • O
  • P
  • Q
  • R
  • S
  • T
  • U
  • V
  • W
  • X
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  • Z

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