The Ecology of Plants
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The Ecology of Plants provides comprehensive, contemporary coverage of plant ecology. Now in its third edition, the text incorporates current scientific developments and includes hundreds of stunning photographs, insightful illustrations, and references. It also features a clean, modern design that makes the material accessible and appealing. The book covers a range of current and historical ecological topics, presented in an evolutionary context, with the focus on the interactions between plants and their environments over a range of scales.
Some of the subjects covered are unique to plants, such as photosynthesis and the ecology of plant-soil interactions; other topics, such as resource and mate acquisition, emphasize the distinctive ways plants (in contrast to animals) deal with their environments. The book uniquely emphasizes the importance of evolutionary and other historical ecological processes as well as human environmental influences.
Annað
- Höfundar: Jessica Gurevitch, Samuel M. Scheiner, Gordon A. Fox
- Útgáfa:3
- Útgáfudagur: 2020-07-10
- Hægt að prenta út 2 bls.
- Hægt að afrita 2 bls.
- Format:ePub
- ISBN 13: 9781605358307
- Print ISBN: 9781605358291
- ISBN 10: 1605358304
Efnisyfirlit
- Cover
- Title page
- Copyright
- Brief Contents
- Contents
- Preface
- 1 The Science of Plant Ecology
- 1.1 Ecology Is a Science
- Where does scientific knowledge come from?
- Scientific research involves objectivity, subjectivity, choice, and chance
- Observational studies detect and quantify patterns
- Experiments are central to research
- In ecology, “controls” are what you are using for baseline comparisons
- How do we test theories?
- Studies can lead to specific results but contribute to general understanding
- Science is ultimately consistent, but getting to consistency is a challenge
- 1.2 Ecological Phenomena Are Heterogeneous in Many Ways
- 1.3 Plant Ecology Has Developed through the Interaction of Observation, Measurement, Analysis, Technology, and Theory
- Plant ecology is situated in the more general theoretical framework of ecology
- Ecology has a range of subdisciplines
- Science is a human endeavor
- 1.1 Ecology Is a Science
- 2 Photosynthesis and Light
- 2.1 Photosynthesis Is the Engine of Life on Earth
- 2.2 Photosynthesis Is Affected by the Environment and by Plant Adaptations
- The amount of light available limits photosynthesis
- Carbon uptake is limited by the ways plants respond to their environments
- Photosynthetic rates can vary among species in different habitats
- 2.3 There Are Three Photosynthetic Pathways: C3, C4, and CAM
- C3 photosynthesis is the most common and original type of photosynthesis
- C4 photosynthesis is a specialized adaptation for rapid carbon uptake in warm, bright environments
- Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM photosynthesis) is a specialized adaptation for minimizing water loss but at the cost of reduced photosynthesis and slow growth
- 2.4 C3 Photosynthesis Is the Foundation for the Evolution of C4 and CAM
- C4 and CAM evolved from C3 photosynthesis many different times in many different plant families
- Photosynthesis first evolved about 2.5 billion years ago and has continued to evolve over Earth’s history
- 2.5 C3, C4, and CAM Plants Each Have Distinct Growth Forms, Phenology, and Distributions
- The three photosynthetic types dominate in different habitats and differ in growth form
- C3 and C4 plants grow most actively in different seasons
- C3, C4, and CAM species have different geographic distributions
- 2.6 Plants Possess Many Different Adaptations to Their Light Environments
- Many plants can detect the length of daylight and how it is changing seasonally
- Leaves grown in sunlit and shaded conditions can differ in structure and function
- The ancestors of modern plants evolved to live in terrestrial environments
- 3.1 Water Potential Provides a Framework for Understanding How Plants Interact with Water in Their Environment
- 3.2 Water Moves through a Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum
- 3.3 Plants Manage Transpiration and Water Loss
- Plants have different strategies for adapting to water availability
- Water use efficiency is a measure of carbon gain versus water loss
- Plants have different adaptations for coping with reduced water availability
- Plants have complex physiological adaptations to drought
- The anatomy and physiology of stomata shape plant responses to water loss
- Leaf anatomy can be adaptive for survival and growth in arid environments
- Roots, stems, and their tissues have adaptations for controlling plant water relations
- 3.4 Everything in the Universe Has a Thermal Energy Balance
- Radiant energy is always being exchanged between plants and their surroundings
- Energy flows between plants and air, water and soil via conduction and convection
- Water loss is accompanied by latent heat loss
- Putting it all together: what determines leaf and whole-plant temperature?
- Plants may have adaptations to extreme temperature regimes
- 4.1 Soils Have Distinct and Varied Composition, Characteristics, and Structure
- It takes many thousands of years to create soil
- Soil texture determines many of the properties of soils that affect plants
- Soil pH has profound but indirect effects
- Soils are characterized by horizons—layers with distinctive properties
- Soils are the unique product of living organisms acting on soil parent material
- 4.2 The Rhizosphere Is a Unique Environment Created by Roots and Their Interaction with Microorganisms
- 4.3 Water Moves through the Soil to Reach Plants
- 4.4 The Basic Building Blocks of Plants are C, H, and O from Air and Water, and Macronutrients and Micronutrients from the Soil
- The stoichiometry of elements in plants and soils regulates many ecological processes
- Nitrogen is often the limiting nutrient for plant growth
- In some plants nitrogen comes from fixation by symbiotes
- Phosphorus is limiting for plant growth in many environments
- 5.1 Ecosystem Processes Set the Stage for Life in a Salt Marsh
- 5.2 Ecosystem Pools and Fluxes Form Cycles of Nutrients and Energy
- 5.3 Carbon Is the Foundation of Life on Earth
- Productivity measures how carbon moves between living things and their nonliving environment
- Carbon is stored in the living and nonliving components of ecosystems
- Soil food webs are the recycling engine of terrestrial ecosystems
- Soil organic matter revisited: Bacteria are an essential component of soil organic matter
- Primary productivity can be measured or estimated in a variety of ways
- 5.4 The Nitrogen Cycle Is an Essential Component of Ecosystems
- Bacteria mineralize organic N to inorganic forms taken up by plants
- Nitrogen is lost from ecosystems through denitrification and leaching
- Decomposition can immobilize soil nitrogen when NO3– or NH4+ are sequestered in bacterial biomass
- 5.5 Nitrogen Deposition and Acid Precipitation Can Alter Ecosystems
- 5.6 Cycles of Phosphorus and Other Elements Play Important Roles in Ecosystems
- Microorganisms make phosphorus available for plants
- Sulfur is critical for certain plant compounds
- Calcium is necessary for many plant processes and structures
- 5.7 The Water Cycle Is Central to Life and Climate
- Water cycles at local and regional scales
- Local water cycles can affect global cycles
- 6 Individual Growth and Reproduction
- 6.1 Growth Begins with Seed Germination
- 6.2 Plants Grow by Adding Repeated Units to Their Bodies
- 6.3 Plant Growth Affects Resource Acquisition
- Shoot architecture determines light interception
- The growth of clonal plants affects their ability to take up patchy resources
- 6.4 Plants Reproduce both Sexually and Asexually
- Many plants reproduce vegetatively
- Some plants produce seeds asexually
- The sexual life cycles of plants involve alternation of generations
- 6.5 The Movement of Pollen Is an Important Aspect of a Plant’s Life Cycle
- The pollen of many plants is moved by the wind
- Visual displays are important for attracting animal visitors
- Animal visitors are attracted to plants with floral odors or acoustic guides
- Plants often need to limit unwanted visits
- How strongly are floral characteristics associated with particular pollinators?
- Aquatic plants have special adaptations for pollination
- 6.6 Plants Have Complicated Mating Systems
- Inbreeding is mating between close relatives
- Plants may vary in gender
- Competition occurs among plants and among pollen grains
- Most mating is between neighboring individuals
- Plants may mate preferentially with individuals with similar phenotypes
- Fitness can depend on a population’s composition
- Mating systems have other important consequences
- 6.7 Fruit and Seed Characteristics Affect Dispersal across Space and Time
- The structures of seeds and fruits affect their dispersal
- Plants can disperse across time via seed banks
- 7.1 Trade-Offs Are a Central Cause of Variation in Life History Patterns
- Trade-offs are difficult to measure
- An important trade-off is in the size and number of seeds
- 7.2 Evolution Acts on the Schedule of Survival and Reproduction
- How long a plant lives and when it does its growing is part of its life history strategy
- 7.3 Several Theories Address Life History Strategies
- Demographic life history theory is based on evolutionary principles
- r- and K-selection theory was influential in earlier thinking about life histories
- r- and K-strategy theory was extended to the ecology of plants
- Grime’s triangular model focuses on the ecological conditions favoring different life history strategies
- Demographic life history theory has been tied to patterns of reproductive allocation
- Other theories of life history strategies are based on examining plant traits
- 7.4 Year-to-Year Variation in the Environment Shapes Life Histories
- Among-year demographic variation reduces fitness
- Bet-hedging strategies can reduce the variance in fitness
- Seed germination is triggered by many factors
- Masting can result in synchronization of flowering among individuals
- 7.5 Phenology Is the Within-Year Schedule of Growth and Reproduction
- The timing of growth is driven by both abiotic and biotic factors
- The timing of reproduction may be due to abiotic factors
- The timing of reproduction may be due to biotic factors
- 8.1 Plant Biology Creates Special Issues for Population Studies
- 8.2 Plant Populations Are Structured by Age, Size, and Developmental Stage
- Plant population structure is complicated because plants can change size or form at variable rates
- 8.3 Studying Population Growth Usually Involves Models of Changes in Population Structure
- Life cycle graphs are useful models of plant demography and its relationship to data acquisition
- Estimating vital rates can be done several ways
- There are several approaches to building models for structured populations
- Analyzing demographic models gives information on population growth rates and population composition
- Measuring lifetime reproduction gives us the net reproductive rate of the population
- Reproductive value is the contribution of each stage to population growth
- Sensitivity and elasticity indicate how individual matrix elements affect population growth
- Life table response experiments can examine the demographic differences among populations
- Ecologists are beginning to study demography at larger spatial scales
- There are additional approaches to modeling plant demography
- Plant populations are heterogeneous
- 8.4 Demographic Studies of Long-Lived Plants Require Creative Methods
- 8.5 Population Growth Fluctuates Randomly over Time
- There are two general types of random variation
- Random fluctuations reduce long-term growth rates
- Studying variable population growth requires data recorded over many years
- 8.6 Demographic Models Have Strengths and Limitations
- 9.1 Natural Selection Is a Primary Cause of Evolutionary Change
- Variation in phenotype is necessary for natural selection
- Three conditions are necessary for evolution by natural selection
- 9.2 Heritability Measures the Genetic Basis of Phenotypic Variation
- Heritability is a measure of resemblances among relatives
- Phenotypic variation can be partitioned into genetic and nongenetic components
- The environment can interact with the genome to determine the phenotype
- Genotypes are often nonrandomly distributed among environments
- 9.3 Patterns of Adaptation Are the Result of Natural Selection
- Heavy-metal tolerance is an example of genetic differentiation
- Adaptation to different light conditions is an example of adaptive plasticity
- Environmental effects can extend over generations
- Phenotypic plasticity is important for understanding other ecological concepts
- 9.4 Natural Selection Can Occur at Levels Other Than the Individual
- 9.5 Other Processes Can Cause Evolutionary Change
- Mutation, migration, and sexual reproduction are processes that increase genetic variation
- Genetic drift is a process that decreases genetic variation
- These evolutionary processes have important conservation implications
- 9.6 Evolutionary Processes Can Affect Variation among Populations
- 9.7 Ecotypes Are Different Forms of a Species That Are Adapted to Different Environments
- 9.8 Natural Selection Can Cause the Origin of New Species
- 9.9 Adaptation and Speciation Can Happen through Hybridization
- 10 Competition and Other Plant Interactions
- 10.1 Individuals Compete for Limited Resources
- What are the mechanisms of resource competition?
- Resource competition often depends on plant size
- Plant competition frequently occurs between seedlings
- Seedling competition can lead to self-thinning
- 10.2 There Are Several Approaches to Experiments for Studying Competition
- How we quantify competition can affect experimental results
- Competition experiments were originally conducted in greenhouse or garden environments
- 10.3 Interactions among Species Range from Competition to Facilitation
- Different theories attempt to explain how competitive trade-offs lead to strategies
- Are there fixed competitive hierarchies?
- Does allelopathy between species explain patterns in nature?
- Plants can change the environment to the advantage of other plants
- Competitive exclusion sometimes determines species distributions
- 10.4 Competition and Facilitation May Vary along Environmental Gradients
- There are conflicting models of how productivity affects the importance of competition and facilitation
- Experimental evidence provides a mixed picture about the roles of competition and facilitation along productivity gradients
- Research syntheses provide some help in interpreting the evidence
- Can we resolve the conflicting results?
- Models of plant competition can help us to better understand competitive processes and the role of competition in species coexistence
- Modern coexistence theory is a framework for understanding how competition affects coexistence
- Models within the framework of modern coexistence theory have stimulated research and discovery
- New research can extend our understanding of coexistence
- 10.1 Individuals Compete for Limited Resources
- 11.1 The Effects of Herbivores on Individual Plants Depend on What Is Eaten
- 11.2 Herbivores Can Alter Plant Population Composition and Dynamics
- Herbivores can change where plants grow
- Herbivory on seeds has both negative and positive consequences for plant populations
- People use insect herbivores for biological control
- 11.3 Herbivores Affect Plant Communities in Different Ways
- Herbivore behavior can change plant community composition
- Herbivory might result in apparent competition among plants
- Domesticated and introduced herbivores can shape plant communities
- How important is herbivory in shaping the natural world?
- 11.4 Plants Defend Themselves against Herbivores by Different Means
- Plants use a variety of physical defenses to protect themselves
- Plants have evolved a wide range of chemical defenses against herbivores
- Plant chemical defenses can be constant or be induced by herbivory
- Evolutionary consequences of plant-herbivore interactions
- 11.5 Plants Are Involved in Many Kinds of Trophic Interactions
- Some plants are parasites of other plants
- 11.6 Plants Interact with Pathogens, Endophytes, and Mycorrhizae in Complex Ways
- Plants are attacked by many different disease-causing organisms
- Plants have immediate defenses and long-term evolutionary responses to pathogens
- Pathogens can shape plant populations and communities
- Plant pathogens can interact in complex ways with other organisms
- Endophytes are symbiotic organisms that live inside plant cells
- Mycorrhizae are essential for terrestrial life
- Arbuscular mycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae are the two most ecologically important groups
- Specialized mycorrhizal interactions include those associated with the Ericaceae and Orchidaceae
- Mycorrhizae function in other ways in addition to nutrient uptake
- Are mycorrhizal fungi mutualists or parasites?
- The influence of mycorrhizae can depend on plant-plant interactions as well as on soil nutrients
- 12.1 There Are Many Ways of Thinking about Communities
- The debate between Henry Gleason and Frederic Clements shaped modern ideas about plant communities
- Today’s ecologists have a different perspective on the issues in contention
- The concept of communities is useful but has often been debated
- 12.2 Biodiversity Describes Variation in Biological Organisms and Systems
- Biodiversity metrics can be built from different types of information
- Inventory diversity is the variation of types of objects
- Differentiation diversity is the variation among units
- Phylogenetic diversity is variation in evolutionary relationships
- Functional diversity is variation in traits
- Different types of biodiversity information can be combined
- 12.3 Communities Can Be Measured in Many Ways
- Measuring species richness can involve simple sampling procedures or complex mathematical estimates
- There are many ways to sample communities
- One measure of a plant community is its physiognomy
- Long-term studies are important for measuring communities
- 12.4 Plant Communities Can Be Compared by Many Methods
- Non-numerical techniques were the first methods for comparing communities
- Communities can be compared by single factors using univariate techniques
- Most community comparisons use multivariate techniques
- 12.5 Communities Are Distributed across Landscapes
- Ordination is a group of techniques for describing landscape patterns
- Patterns of species difference among communities are caused by variation in the environment
- What types of data are used?
- Classification is an alternative approach to describing communities in a landscape
- 13.1 Conflicting Theories Have Attempted to Explain the Mechanisms of Succession
- Are communities dynamic mosaics or regulated by predictable processes?
- Scientific understanding can be influenced by methodology
- 13.2 Successional Change Has Three General Causes
- Disturbance size affects which species can colonize
- Fire can cause disturbance
- Wind can cause disturbance
- Water can cause disturbance
- Animals can cause disturbance
- Earthquakes and volcanoes can cause disturbance
- Disease can cause disturbance
- Humans can cause disturbance
- 13.3 Which Species Are Available for Colonization Affects Succession
- The dispersal capacity of species affects their colonization capability
- Species can emerge from the propagule pool
- 13.4 Species Performance Determines the Pattern of Successional Change
- Species vary in their life histories
- Species interactions are central to species replacement during succession
- Resource availability can change during succession
- 13.5 The Pathway of Succession Can Vary
- Succession may or may not be predictable
- Understanding successional processes is critical for community restoration
- 13.6 Ecologists Have Reconsidered the Concept of Climax
- 14.1 Are Dominant Species Competitively Superior?
- There are many ways to be rare but few ways to be common
- Being rare can vary over space and time
- What makes a species common or rare?
- 14.2 Biological Invasions Are a Worldwide Concern
- Why do some species become invasive?
- What makes a community susceptible to invasion?
- Efforts have been made to integrate explanations for invasiveness and susceptibility to invasion
- Invasive species may alter many community properties and threaten biodiversity
- 14.3 Species Richness and Abundances Differ Greatly among Communities
- Abundance curves illustrate community structure graphically
- Productivity and diversity are related in complex ways within communities
- Trade-offs and specialization contribute to diversity in heterogeneous environments
- Disturbances might maintain community diversity
- 14.4 Does Increased Diversity Enhance Community Productivity or Stability?
- Community dominance and diversity can affect ecosystem processes
- Diversity has been hypothesized to increase stability
- Diversity, rarity, and commonness vary with spatial extent
- 15 Landscapes: Pattern and Scale
- 15.1 Understanding Scale Is Critical to Understanding Ecological Processes
- Patterns and processes can vary with scale
- Scale interacts with environmental heterogeneity
- Processes and patterns may vary as grain and extent change
- Spatial pattern and scale can be analyzed using graphical and statistical methods
- 15.2 Landscape Ecology Involves Measuring Spatial Patterns and Looking at Their Effects
- Defining patches is a key step in measuring patterns
- Patches can be quantified by their sizes, shapes, and spatial arrangement
- Spatial patterns determine many ecological processes
- How one analyzes landscape data affects whether the landscape appears to be continuous or discrete
- 15.3 Ecological Processes Occur across Landscapes
- Island biogeography theory
- Ecologists have debated whether there is a set of rules that determines how communities are put together
- Metapopulation theory
- Demographic processes occur across landscapes
- Metacommunity theory
- 15.4 Ecological Processes at the Level of Landscapes Is Important for Plant Conservation
- Fragmentation of landscapes is a major threat to biodiversity
- Key landscape characteristics are edges, connectivity, and nestedness
- Ecological theory can help guide reserve design
- 15.1 Understanding Scale Is Critical to Understanding Ecological Processes
- 16.1 There Are Important Differences between Climate and Weather
- 16.2 The Kinetic Energy of Molecules Determines Heat and Temperature
- The sun’s angle is the main factor determining the radiant energy received at Earth’s surface
- There are long-term cycles in Earth’s path around the sun that affect radiant energy at Earth’s surface
- 16.3 Precipitation Patterns Vary across the Earth
- Global patterns are determined by air moving in three dimensions at huge spatial scales
- Continental-scale movement of air and water explain regional differences in snow and rain
- Seasonal variation in precipitation is an important component of climate
- The El Niño Southern Oscillation affects rainfall at large spatial scales and intermediate time scales
- Temperature and rainfall predictability affect plant ecology and evolution
- 16.4 Anthropogenic Global Climate Change Is Caused by Humans and Is Affecting Vegetation
- The global carbon cycle is central to Earth’s climates
- Increasing atmospheric CO2 has direct effects on plants
- The greenhouse effect warms the Earth due to greenhouse gases
- 16.5 Humans Are Changing the Global Carbon Cycle
- Fossil fuel combustion is the most important factor changing the greenhouse effect
- Deforestation and land use change also affect climate
- 16.6 Agriculture Is a Major Source of Greenhouse Gases
- 16.7 Global Climate Change Is Already Occurring
- 16.8 Large Changes Are Predicted for Earth’s Climates, but Some Impacts Can Still Be Mitigated
- 16.9 Changing Climates Are Affecting Species and Ecological Systems
- 16.10 Responses to Ongoing and Predicted Climate Change
- 17.1 Plants Invaded the Land in the Paleozoic Era
- 17.2 The Mesozoic Era Was Dominated by Gymnosperms and Saw the Origin of the Angiosperms
- Gymnosperms were the first group of dominant seed plants
- The breakup of Pangaea happened as the angiosperms rose to dominance
- The boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods resulted in big changes in the flora and fauna
- 17.3 The Cenozoic Era Was Dominated by Angiosperms
- 17.4 Many Different Methods Are Used to Uncover the Past
- 17.5 Vegetation Change in the Recent Past Has Been Dominated by the Waxing and Waning of Glaciers
- At the glacial maximum, climates and habitats were very different from today
- Modern plant communities began to appear as the glaciers retreated
- Climatic fluctuations of the recent past continue to shape the vegetation
- 18.1 Vegetation Can Be Categorized by Its Structure and Function
- Plant physiognomy varies across the globe
- Forests are closed canopy systems dominated by trees
- Tree line defines the edge between treed and treeless landscapes
- Grasslands and woodlands dominate in areas of lower precipitation
- Shrublands and deserts are found in very dry or cool regions
- 18.2 Biomes with Similar Vegetation Forms May Be the Result of Convergent Evolution
- 18.3 Moist Tropical Forests
- Tropical rainforest
- Tropical montane forest
- 18.4 Seasonal Tropical Forests and Woodlands
- Tropical deciduous forest
- Thorn forest
- Tropical woodland
- 18.5 Temperate Deciduous Forest
- 18.6 Other Temperate Forests and Woodlands
- Temperate rainforest
- Temperate evergreen forest
- Temperate woodland
- 18.7 Taiga
- 18.8 Temperate Shrubland
- 18.9 Grasslands
- Temperate grassland
- Tropical savanna
- 18.10 Deserts
- Hot desert
- Cold desert
- 18.11 Alpine and Arctic Vegetation
- Alpine grassland and shrubland
- Tundra
- 19.1 Biodiversity Varies Enormously across the Earth
- Global biodiversity increases toward the tropics
- 19.2 What Explains Global Biodiversity Patterns?
- Explanations for the latitudinal diversity gradient include energy, water, and environmental heterogeneity, but all explanations have limitations
- There are also regional and global patterns of β-diversity
- 19.3 There Are Distinctive Regional and Continental Patterns of Plant Biodiversity
- Continents at the same latitudes differ in species diversity
- Transition zones may have higher diversity due to overlaps in species’ distributions
- Mountains and mountainous regions have distinct but complex patterns of species diversity
- 19.4 Regional Diversity and Local Diversity Can Influence One Another
- Endemism, isolation, and global biodiversity hotspots
- 19.5 Patterns of Species Diversity May Be Explained in General Terms
- Null models and the neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography pose a different approach to explaining patterns of species diversity
- Other explanations have been posed to explain variation in biodiversity, but patterns are scale dependent
- 19.6 Biodiversity Is Rapidly Being Lost Globally
- What is being lost?
- Biodiversity is threatened by human activity
- Does human domination require a new definition of the biomes?
- Both rare and common species face threats in a range of communities
- Human population growth and land use contribute to biodiversity loss
- 19.7 Ecosystem Services Are One Way of Quantifying the Benefits of Natural Systems to Humans
- Why should anyone care about plant biodiversity?
- Conservation and restoration of biodiversity: a ray of hope?
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