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• Cover Page
• Title page
• Copyright page
• Preface
• New to this edition
• Guide to the features in English Legal System
  • Understand and clarify the topic at hand
  • Contextualise the English legal system and develop your critical thinking
  • Take your learning further
  • Test your knowledge and prepare for assessment
• Table of Contents
• Table of cases
• Table of legislation
  • Table of Statutes
• Table of statutory instruments
• Table of European legislation
  • Treaties
  • Directives
  • Regulations
  • Table of International Conventions
• Chapter 1 Studying the English legal system
  • Introduction
  • 1.1 Studying law in higher education
  • 1.2 Advice on studying the English legal system
    • 1.2.1 Aims and outcomes
    • 1.2.2 Syllabus
    • 1.2.3 Reading
  • 1.3 Lectures
    • 1.3.1 Note taking
    • 1.3.2 After the lecture
  • 1.4 Preparing for seminars
  • 1.5 Assessment
    • 1.5.1 Assessment criteria
    • 1.5.2 Written assignments
    • 1.5.3 Writing an assignment
    • 1.5.4 Referencing
    • 1.5.5 Finally …
    • 1.5.6 What to do after the return of your assignment
  • 1.6 Advice on oral presentations
  • 1.7 Examinations
    • 1.7.1 Preparing for examinations
    • 1.7.2 The examination
    • 1.7.3 Post-examination
  • Further reading
• Chapter 2 An overview of the English legal system
  • Introduction
  • 2.1 What is law?
    • 2.1.1 Recognised as being law
    • 2.1.2 Jurisdiction
    • 2.1.3 The commencement of Acts of Parliament
    • 2.1.4 Criminal offences and civil wrongs
  • 2.2 Common law and equity
    • 2.2.1 Common law
    • 2.2.2 Common law as case law
    • 2.2.3 Equity
  • 2.3 Parliamentary or legislative supremacy
    • 2.3.1 Relationship between the law of the UK and the law of the EU
    • 2.3.2 Relationship between the law of the UK and the ECHR
  • 2.4 Criminal law and civil law: terminology, differences, and themes
    • 2.4.1 Criminal
    • 2.4.2 Civil
  • 2.5 Classification of the courts
    • 2.5.1 Overview of the composition and jurisdiction of the courts
    • 2.5.2 Magistrates’ courts
      • Criminal jurisdiction
    • 2.5.3 The Crown Court
    • 2.5.4 The County Court
      • Commencing proceedings—the County Court or High Court?
    • 2.5.5 The Family Court
    • 2.5.6 The High Court
      • Appellate jurisdiction
      • Supervisory jurisdiction
    • 2.5.7 The Court of Appeal
    • 2.5.8 The Supreme Court
      • Membership and jurisdiction
    • 2.5.9 The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
    • 2.5.10 The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)
    • 2.5.11 The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
  • 2.6 Legal personnel and bodies
    • 2.6.1 The Ministry of Justice
    • 2.6.2 Lord Chancellor
    • 2.6.3 The Lady/Lord Chief Justice
    • 2.6.4 The Attorney General
    • 2.6.5 The Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) and the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)
    • 2.6.6 The Legal Aid Agency
    • 2.6.7 The Law Commission
    • 2.6.8 Lawyers
  • Summary
  • Questions
  • Further reading
• Chapter 3 Legislation and the law-making process
  • Introduction
  • 3.1 Parliament
    • 3.1.1 The nature and functions of Parliament
    • 3.1.2 The House of Commons
      • Disqualification from membership of the House of Commons
      • Removal of MPs
    • 3.1.3 The House of Lords
      • Hereditary peers
      • Life peers
      • Judicial peers
      • The Lords Spiritual
      • Appointment of women bishops
      • The cross-benchers
      • The House of Lords Appointments Commission
      • Disqualifications from membership of the House of Lords
      • Retirement or resignation of members of the House of Lords
      • Removal of members of the House of Lords on grounds of non-attendance
      • Removal of members of the House of Lords following conviction of a serious offence
      • Expulsion or suspension of members of the House of Lords
    • 3.1.4 Reform of the House of Lords
      • Reform proposals to date
  • 3.2 Primary legislation
    • 3.2.1 Public, private, and hybrid legislation
      • Public legislation
      • Private (or local) legislation
      • Hybrid legislation
    • 3.2.2 ‘Constitutional’ and ‘ordinary’ legislation?
    • 3.2.3 The origins of legislation
      • Government legislation
      • Implementation of EU directives
      • Private members’ bills
  • 3.3 The passage of legislation through Parliament
    • 3.3.1 Procedure for the passage of a public bill
      • Pre-legislative steps
      • The first reading
      • The second reading
      • Committee stage
      • Report stage
      • Third reading
      • The other House
      • Royal assent
      • Commencement
    • 3.3.2 Carrying over bills from one parliamentary session to another
    • 3.3.3 The effectiveness of parliamentary scrutiny of legislation
      • The government’s majority
      • The government’s control of the timetable
      • Programme motions
      • Limited power of MPs
      • The role of the opposition parties
      • The role of the House of Lords
    • 3.3.4 English Votes for English Laws (EVEL) (2015–21)
  • 3.4 Resolving inter-House conflicts using the Parliament Act procedure
    • 3.4.1 Money bills
    • 3.4.2 Other bills
      • The Jackson case: R (on the application of Jackson and Others) v Her Majesty’s Attorney General [2005] UKHL 56, [2006] 1 AC 262
  • 3.5 Secondary legislation
    • 3.5.1 Forms of delegated legislation
      • Statutory instruments
      • Specific types of statutory instrument
        • (a) Commencement orders
        • (b) Remedial orders
        • (c) Regulatory reform orders
        • (d) Orders in council
      • Byelaws
    • 3.5.2 Why is delegated legislation necessary?
      • Time constraints
      • Complexity
      • Flexibility
      • Emergencies
      • Incorporation of EU directives
    • 3.5.3 Possible dangers inherent in secondary legislation
      • Lack of accountability
      • Potential for abuse
      • ‘Henry VIII clauses’
    • 3.5.4 Control over delegated legislation
      • The enabling Act
      • Laying before Parliament
      • The negative procedure
      • The affirmative procedure
      • Failure to comply with laying arrangements
      • Scrutiny by parliamentary committee
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 4 The interpretation of statutes
  • Introduction
  • 4.1 Problems of language
  • 4.2 Preliminary issues
  • 4.3 The approach to statutory interpretation
    • 4.3.1 The literal rule
    • 4.3.2 The golden rule
    • 4.3.3 The mischief rule
      • Purposive approach—Heydon’s case and the purposive approach contrasted
    • 4.3.4 Application of the literal, golden, and mischief rules
    • 4.3.5 The contextual and purposive approach
      • Reading words in and out
    • 4.3.6 The rules of statutory interpretation in action
      • Arguments for the claimants
      • Arguments for the defendants
      • The reasoning in the House of Lords
  • 4.4 Aids to construction
    • 4.4.1 Aids to construction found within an Act of Parliament
      • The long title
      • The preamble
      • The short title
      • Cross-headings
      • Side or marginal notes
      • Punctuation
    • 4.4.2 Aids to construction found outside an Act of Parliament
      • Explanatory Notes
      • Interpretation Act 1978
      • Pre-parliamentary materials
      • Parliamentary materials—Hansard
      • Statutes in pari materia
      • Dictionaries
  • 4.5 Rules of language
    • 4.5.1 Expressio unius est exclusio alterius rule
    • 4.5.2 Ejusdem generis rule
    • 4.5.3 Noscitur a sociis rule
  • 4.6 Presumptions of statutory intent
    • 4.6.1 Presumptions of general application
    • 4.6.2 Presumptions of legislative intent in cases of doubt or ambiguity
      • Presumption in relation to penal statutes
      • Presumption against the retrospective operation of a statute
      • Presumption against ousting the jurisdiction of the courts
      • Presumption against Parliament being in breach of international law
  • 4.7 Interpretation of legislation and the EU
  • 4.8 Interpretation of legislation and the Human Rights Act 1998
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 5 The doctrine of judicial precedent
  • Introduction
  • 5.1 Judicial precedent and law reporting
  • 5.2 The nature of judge-made law
  • 5.3 Ratio decidendi
    • 5.3.1 Identification of the ratio decidendi of a case
    • 5.3.2 Cases on the interpretation of statutes
    • 5.3.3 Looking to later cases in determining the ratio decidendi of a case
    • 5.3.4 Finding the ratio decidendi: an illustration
      • The issues and the material facts
      • The arguments
      • The decision
      • The ratio decidendi
    • 5.3.5 More than one ratio
    • 5.3.6 The ratio decidendi of appellate courts
  • 5.4 Obiter dicta
  • 5.5 The nature of stare decisis
    • 5.5.1 The Court of Justice of the European Union (EU)
    • 5.5.2 The Supreme Court (formerly the House of Lords)
    • 5.5.3 The Court of Appeal
      • Court of Appeal (Civil Division)
        • (a) Conflicting decisions of the Court of Appeal
        • (b) A Court of Appeal decision, though not expressly overruled, cannot stand with a decision of the Supreme Court/House of Lords
        • (c) Per incuriam
      • Court of Appeal (Criminal Division)
    • 5.5.4 The High Court: Divisional Courts and at first instance
      • Appellate jurisdiction
      • Supervisory jurisdiction
      • High Court at first instance
    • 5.5.5 The Crown Court
    • 5.5.6 The County Court and magistrates’ courts
    • 5.5.7 The Family Court
    • 5.5.8 The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
    • 5.5.9 Judicial precedent, the Human Rights Act 1998, and the European Court of Human Rights
  • 5.6 Methods of avoiding precedents
    • 5.6.1 Overruling
    • 5.6.2 Reversing
    • 5.6.3 Distinguishing
  • 5.7 The nature of the rules of judicial precedent
  • 5.8 Case analysis
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 6 The law and institutions of the European Union (EU)
  • Introduction
  • 6.1 The history of the EU
    • 6.1.1 The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
    • 6.1.2 The EEC
    • 6.1.3 Geographical enlargement and legal expansion
    • 6.1.4 The EU and other developments
    • 6.1.5 The state of the Union
  • 6.2 The institutions of the EU
    • 6.2.1 The European Council
    • 6.2.2 The Council of the EU
    • 6.2.3 The European Commission
    • 6.2.4 The European Parliament
    • 6.2.5 The Court of Justice of the EU
    • 6.2.6 The General Court
    • 6.2.7 The European Central Bank
    • 6.2.8 The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC)
    • 6.2.9 The Committee of the Regions (CoR)
  • 6.3 Sources of EU law
    • 6.3.1 The Treaties and the Charter
      • The Treaty on European Union (TEU)
      • The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU)
      • The Charter of Fundamental Rights
    • 6.3.2 Secondary legislation: an introduction
    • 6.3.3 Regulations
    • 6.3.4 Directives
      • Implementation of directives
      • Implications of failing to implement on time
    • 6.3.5 Decisions
    • 6.3.6 Recommendations and opinions
    • 6.3.7 Case law
  • 6.4 The preliminary rulings procedure
    • 6.4.1 Introduction
    • 6.4.2 Purpose
    • 6.4.3 Scope
    • 6.4.4 Who can seek a preliminary ruling?
    • 6.4.5 Discretionary and mandatory referral
    • 6.4.6 Avoiding mandatory referral
    • 6.4.7 Docket control
    • 6.4.8 Preliminary rulings on validity
    • 6.4.9 The urgent procedure
    • 6.4.10 Reform of the preliminary rulings procedure
      • Possible causes of the CJEU’s workload problem
  • 6.5 The supremacy of EU law
  • 6.6 Direct effect
    • 6.6.1 Introduction
    • 6.6.2 Direct effect and Treaty articles
    • 6.6.3 Direct effect and the Charter
    • 6.6.4 Direct effect and regulations
    • 6.6.5 Direct effect and directives
      • Application of Foster v British Gas in UK courts and tribunals
      • No ‘reverse’ vertical direct effect of directives
    • 6.6.6 The incidental direct effect of directives
    • 6.6.7 Indirect effect
  • 6.7 EU law in the UK post-Brexit: the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 and the Retained EU Law (Reform and Revocation) Act 2023
    • 6.7.1 Repeal of the European Communities Act 1972 (ECA 1972)
    • 6.7.2 Saving for EU-derived domestic legislation
    • 6.7.3 Incorporation of ‘direct EU legislation’
    • 6.7.4 Saving certain provisions in the Treaties—but not the Charter of Fundamental Rights
    • 6.7.5 The supremacy of EU law post-Brexit
    • 6.7.6 Interpretation of ‘retained EU law’
    • 6.7.7 Dealing with deficiencies arising from withdrawal
    • 6.7.8 The present position: the Retained EU Law (Revocation and Reform) Act 2023
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 7 Human rights in the United Kingdom
  • Introduction
  • 7.1 The ECHR and the incorporation of Convention rights into UK law
    • 7.1.1 The Human Rights Act 1998 and the incorporation of Convention rights into UK law
      • Margin of appreciation
      • Proportionality
    • 7.1.2 Derogation from Convention rights
    • 7.1.3 Parliamentary sovereignty and the ECHR
  • 7.2 Interpretation of legislation under section 3
  • 7.3 Declaration of incompatibility
  • 7.4 Statements of compatibility in Parliament
  • 7.5 Remedying incompatibility
    • 7.5.1 Incompatible primary legislation
    • 7.5.2 Incompatible subordinate legislation
  • 7.6 The UK courts and the European Court of Human Rights
  • 7.7 Unlawful for a public authority to act incompatibly with Convention rights
    • 7.7.1 Vertical and horizontal rights
    • 7.7.2 The meaning of public authority
    • 7.7.3 A case study: determining what is a public authority
      • Facts
      • The issue
      • Lord Bingham
      • Lord Scott
    • 7.7.4 The enforcement of Convention rights
    • 7.7.5 Remedies
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 8 The judiciary
  • Introduction
  • 8.1 The judicial hierarchy
    • 8.1.1 The Lord Chancellor
    • 8.1.2 Justices of the Supreme Court
      • Appointment
      • House of Lords reform—the creation of the Supreme Court
    • 8.1.3 The Lady/Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales
    • 8.1.4 The Master of the Rolls
    • 8.1.5 Heads of Division
    • 8.1.6 Judges in the Court of Appeal
    • 8.1.7 Lords Justices of Appeal
    • 8.1.8 High Court judges
    • 8.1.9 High Court Masters and Registrars
    • 8.1.10 Circuit judges
    • 8.1.11 Recorders
    • 8.1.12 District judges
    • 8.1.13 District judges (magistrates’ courts)
    • 8.1.14 Magistrates—justices of the peace (JPs)
    • 8.1.15 Coroners
  • 8.2 The appointment of the judiciary
    • 8.2.1 The Peach Report
    • 8.2.2 Diversity in judicial appointments
    • 8.2.3 Alternative methods of appointment
  • 8.3 Removal and retirement
  • 8.4 Judicial independence
  • 8.5 Governance of the judiciary
    • 8.5.1 Training the judiciary
    • 8.5.2 Judicial conduct
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 9 The legal profession
  • Introduction
  • 9.1 The legal profession
  • 9.2 Solicitors
    • 9.2.1 The work of solicitors
    • 9.2.2 Representation in court
    • 9.2.3 Sole practitioners and partnerships
    • 9.2.4 Qualification
    • 9.2.5 SQE: the qualification route for solicitors
    • 9.2.6 The composition of the solicitors’ profession
    • 9.2.7 The Law Society and the SRA
    • 9.2.8 Complaints about solicitors
    • 9.2.9 SRA Standards and Regulations
    • 9.2.10 The liability of solicitors
  • 9.3 Barristers
    • 9.3.1 The ‘cab rank’ rule
    • 9.3.2 Barristers’ direct access to clients
    • 9.3.3 Restrictions on partnerships
    • 9.3.4 Qualification
    • 9.3.5 The Inns of Court
    • 9.3.6 Deferral of call
    • 9.3.7 King’s Counsel (KCs)
    • 9.3.8 The composition of the barristers’ profession
    • 9.3.9 The Bar Council
    • 9.3.10 Complaints about barristers
    • 9.3.11 Barristers’ professional Code of Conduct
    • 9.3.12 The liability of barristers
  • 9.4 Regulation of the professions and reform: the Clementi Review
    • 9.4.1 The Legal Services Board
    • 9.4.2 The Office for Legal Complaints
    • 9.4.3 Alternative business structures (ABS)
  • 9.5 Should the professions of barrister and solicitor be amalgamated?
  • 9.6 Additional legal professionals
    • 9.6.1 Chartered legal executives
    • 9.6.2 Licensed conveyancers
    • 9.6.3 Paralegals
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 10 Access to justice
  • Introduction
  • 10.1 The Legal Aid Agency
  • 10.2 The Civil Legal Advice Service
    • 10.2.1 The availability of funding
      • Official investigations of legal aid reform
      • Eligibility for funding for civil legal aid
    • 10.2.2 Community legal service partnerships
    • 10.2.3 Citizens Advice
    • 10.2.4 Law centres
    • 10.2.5 Student law clinics
    • 10.2.6 Pro bono schemes
    • 10.2.7 Conditional fee agreements
    • 10.2.8 Before-the-event insurance (BTE)
  • 10.3 Criminal legal aid
    • 10.3.1 Direct funding
      • Eligibility for funding
    • 10.3.2 The Public Defender Service
  • 10.4 The recent history of legal aid reform
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 11 The criminal process: the suspect and the police
  • Introduction
  • 11.1 The structure and organisation of the police
    • 11.1.1 Police and Crime Commissioners
    • 11.1.2 The Independent Office of Police Conduct (IOPC)
  • 11.2 The Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) and the Codes of Practice
  • 11.3 Police powers to search, seize property, and make arrests
    • 11.3.1 Powers to stop and search and seize articles
      • Serious Violence Reduction Orders—new type of ‘no suspicion’ stop and searches
    • 11.3.2 Powers to make arrests
    • 11.3.3 Power to enter and search premises and seize articles
    • 11.3.4 Power to search a person following arrest
    • 11.3.5 Policing protestors
    • 11.3.6 New criminal offences relating to protests
      • Public nuisance
      • Locking-on, tunnelling, and obstruction of major transport works
      • Serious disruption
      • Managing protests
      • Other public order offences
      • Reform—Serious Disruption Prevention Orders (SDPO)
        • Stop-and-search powers for protest-related offences
  • 11.4 The suspect at the police station
    • 11.4.1 Arrival at the police station
    • 11.4.2 Detention conditions and care and treatment of detainees
    • 11.4.3 The police station interview
    • 11.4.4 Confessions made by the accused
      • Section 76(2)(a)
      • Section 76(2)(b)
    • 11.4.5 The accused’s silence at the police station
    • 11.4.6 Review and extension of detention
    • 11.4.7 Photographs, fingerprints, and samples
  • 11.5 Release under investigation, bail, or charge
    • 11.5.1 Release under investigation (RUI) or pre-charge bail
    • 11.5.2 Charging a detainee
    • 11.5.3 After charge
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
        • Stop and search
        • Arrest
        • Detention
        • Interview
  • Further reading
• Chapter 12 The criminal process: pre-trial and trial
  • Introduction
  • 12.1 The criminal courts of trial and the classification of offences
  • 12.2 Instituting criminal proceedings
    • 12.2.1 The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)
    • 12.2.2 Commencing criminal proceedings
    • 12.2.3 Written charge and requisition
    • 12.2.4 Information and summons
    • 12.2.5 Time limits
    • 12.2.6 Fixed penalty notices for road traffic offences and penalty notices for disorder
  • 12.3 Reform of the criminal justice system
    • 12.3.1 The Criminal Procedure Rules 2020
    • 12.3.2 Live video and audio links
  • 12.4 First hearings
    • 12.4.1 First hearings: summary-only offences
    • 12.4.2 First hearings: either-way offences
    • 12.4.3 Plea before venue
    • 12.4.4 Allocation procedure
    • 12.4.5 Abolition of committal proceedings
    • 12.4.6 First hearings: indictable-only offences
    • 12.4.7 First appearance in the Crown Court
  • 12.5 Indictments
  • 12.6 Plea bargaining
  • 12.7 Bail
    • 12.7.1 Remand in custody
    • 12.7.2 Remand on bail
  • 12.8 Pre-trial issues: disclosure
    • 12.8.1 Section 9 of the Criminal Justice Act 1967
    • 12.8.2 Unused material
  • 12.9 Trial on indictment
    • 12.9.1 The case for the prosecution
    • 12.9.2 Defence submissions of no case to answer
    • 12.9.3 The case for the defence
    • 12.9.4 Closing speeches by prosecution and defence advocates
    • 12.9.5 The trial judge’s summing up
  • 12.10 Summary trial
  • 12.11 Evidential issues
    • 12.11.1 Burden and standard of proof
    • 12.11.2 Bad character
      • The bad character of the defendant
      • The bad character of non-defendants
    • 12.11.3 Good character
    • 12.11.4 Silence: failure of the defendant to testify
  • 12.12 Verdicts
    • 12.12.1 Trial on indictment
    • 12.12.2 Summary trial
    • 12.12.3 Retrials
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 13 The jury
  • Introduction
  • 13.1 The role of the jury
    • 13.1.1 The jury’s function in criminal trials
    • 13.1.2 Jury equity
    • 13.1.3 Appeals against decisions of the jury and the ‘confidentiality’ principle
      • Appeals by the prosecution
      • Appeals by the defence
    • 13.1.4 Majority verdicts
    • 13.1.5 The jury’s function in civil trials
  • 13.2 The selection of the jury
    • 13.2.1 Liability to serve
    • 13.2.2 Ineligibility
    • 13.2.3 Disqualifications
    • 13.2.4 Excusal
    • 13.2.5 The process of selection
  • 13.3 Challenges to jury membership
    • 13.3.1 Challenge ‘for cause’
    • 13.3.2 Challenge by the prosecution
    • 13.3.3 Abolition of the defence ‘peremptory challenge’
    • 13.3.4 Challenge to the array
  • 13.4 Jury vetting
    • 13.4.1 Police vetting
    • 13.4.2 Further vetting in ‘exceptional cases’
  • 13.5 The ethnic composition of the jury
    • 13.5.1 Objections in principle
    • 13.5.2 Objections in practice
      • The Auld Review proposal
  • 13.6 Jury intimidation or ‘tampering’
    • 13.6.1 Juries in England and Wales
      • The standard of proof
      • The Human Rights Act 1998 and the right to a fair trial
      • The first condition: ‘Real and present danger’
      • The second condition: Alternative measures to judge-only trial
      • Defence rights to challenge the trial judge
      • The implications for the trial judge
      • Twomey and Others: the aftermath
    • 13.6.2 Criminal juries in Northern Ireland
  • 13.7 Juries in serious fraud trials
    • 13.7.1 Exclusion of juries from serious fraud trials: summary of the arguments
  • 13.8 Jury waiver
  • 13.9 Jurors, social media, and the internet
    • 13.9.1 Power of the judge to order jurors to surrender electronic communications devices: section 15A, Juries Act 1974 (as amended)
    • 13.9.2 New offence of conducting research into a live case: section 20A, Juries Act 1974 (as amended)
    • 13.9.3 New offence of sharing information obtained during prohibited research with other jurors: section 20B, Juries Act 1974 (as amended)
    • 13.9.4 New offence of engaging in ‘prohibited conduct’: section 20C, Juries Act 1974 (as amended)
  • 13.10 Advantages of jury trials
    • 13.10.1 Public participation
    • 13.10.2 Juries are the best judges of facts
    • 13.10.3 Clear separation of responsibility
    • 13.10.4 Encourages openness and intelligibility
  • 13.11 Disadvantages of jury trials
    • 13.11.1 Cost and time
    • 13.11.2 Risk of perverse verdicts
      • Excessive damages awards in civil actions
      • Criminal trials
    • 13.11.3 Racist jurors in criminal trials
    • 13.11.4 Compulsory jury service
    • 13.11.5 Distress caused to jury members
    • 13.11.6 Lacking skill?
      • Jury trials, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the possibility of remote jury trials
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 14 Sentencing
  • Introduction
  • 14.1 Statutory provisions governing the sentencing of offenders
    • 14.1.1 The purposes of sentencing
    • 14.1.2 Maximum sentences
  • 14.2 Determining the appropriate sentence
    • 14.2.1 Sentencing guidelines
      • The Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Act 2022
    • 14.2.2 Offence seriousness: aggravating and mitigating factors
    • 14.2.3 Pre-sentence reports
    • 14.2.4 Newton hearings
    • 14.2.5 Offences taken into consideration
  • 14.3 Types of sentence
    • 14.3.1 Absolute and conditional discharges
    • 14.3.2 Fines
    • 14.3.3 Community orders
    • 14.3.4 Custodial sentences
      • Determinate custodial sentences
      • Minimum terms of imprisonment
      • Consecutive or concurrent prison sentences
      • Suspended sentence orders
      • Deferred sentences
      • Extended determinate sentences
      • Sentencing offenders of particular concern
      • Life sentences
      • Whole life orders
    • 14.3.5 Other sentences and orders upon sentence
    • 14.3.6 Costs and surcharges
  • 14.4 Sentencing children and young people
    • 14.4.1 Aims of youth sentencing
    • 14.4.2 Absolute and conditional discharges
    • 14.4.3 Fines
    • 14.4.4 Referral orders
    • 14.4.5 Youth rehabilitation orders
    • 14.4.6 Custodial sentences
      • Detention and training orders
      • Detention under s.250 of the Sentencing Code
      • Life imprisonment
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
        • Introduction
        • Maximum sentences
        • Determining the appropriate sentence
  • Further reading
• Chapter 15 The civil process
  • Introduction
  • 15.1 The nature of civil proceedings
  • 15.2 Pre-civil justice reform
  • 15.3 The Woolf reforms
    • 15.3.1 The Civil Procedure Rules
    • 15.3.2 The overriding objective and the court’s duty to manage cases
    • 15.3.3 Proportionate cost
    • 15.3.4 The Jackson Review
  • 15.4 The civil courts
    • 15.4.1 The County Court
    • 15.4.2 The High Court
  • 15.5 Case management powers
  • 15.6 Commencing civil proceedings
    • 15.6.1 Preliminary matters
    • 15.6.2 Pre-action protocols
    • 15.6.3 Claim forms
  • 15.7 Responding to particulars of claim, acknowledgement of service, admissions, and default judgments
    • 15.7.1 Filing a defence or a reply
    • 15.7.2 Filing an acknowledgement of service
    • 15.7.3 Default judgments
    • 15.7.4 Formal admissions
    • 15.7.5 Stay of proceedings
  • 15.8 Allocation and case management tracks
    • 15.8.1 The small claims track
    • 15.8.2 The fast track
    • 15.8.3 The intermediate track
    • 15.8.4 The multi-track
  • 15.9 The disclosure and inspection of documents
    • 15.9.1 Without prejudice communications
  • 15.10 Part 36 offers
  • 15.11 Qualified one-way costs shifting
  • 15.12 Applying for court orders
  • 15.13 Summary judgment
  • 15.14 Civil trial
    • 15.14.1 Burden and standard of proof in civil proceedings
  • 15.15 Evidence in civil proceedings
    • 15.15.1 Exclusionary discretion
    • 15.15.2 The evidence of witnesses in civil proceedings
    • 15.15.3 Witness summonses and the competence and compellability of witnesses
    • 15.15.4 Expert evidence in civil proceedings
  • 15.16 Costs
    • 15.16.1 Costs-only proceedings
  • 15.17 Enforcement of judgments and orders
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
  • Blogs
• Chapter 16 Alternative dispute resolution
  • Introduction
  • 16.1 Arbitration
    • 16.1.1 Commercial arbitration: general principles
    • 16.1.2 Arbitrators
    • 16.1.3 Appeals and judicial review
  • 16.2 Mediation
    • 16.2.1 The scope of mediation
      • Divorce and subsequent disputes
      • Negligence actions
      • Judicial review
      • Trust and probate disputes
      • Neighbour disputes
      • Landlord and tenant disputes
      • Contractual disputes
      • Commercial disputes
      • Medical disputes
      • Other areas
    • 16.2.2 The ‘cost consequences’ of a failure to mediate
    • 16.2.3 The importance of the voluntary nature of mediation
  • 16.3 Other forms of ADR
    • 16.3.1 Adjudication
    • 16.3.2 Conciliation
    • 16.3.3 Med-arb
    • 16.3.4 Early neutral evaluation/expert determination
    • 16.3.5 Industry codes of conduct
  • 16.4 The court’s powers to ‘stay’ litigation
  • 16.5 Problems with court hearings
    • 16.5.1 High cost
    • 16.5.2 Adversarial procedure
    • 16.5.3 Inaccessible
    • 16.5.4 Inflexible
    • 16.5.5 Publicity
    • 16.5.6 Imposed solutions
  • 16.6 Advantages of ADR
    • 16.6.1 Low cost
    • 16.6.2 Speed
    • 16.6.3 Informality
    • 16.6.4 Accessibility
    • 16.6.5 Expertise
    • 16.6.6 Privacy
    • 16.6.7 Agreed solutions (mediation)
    • 16.6.8 Pressure eased on the courts
  • 16.7 Disadvantages of ADR
    • 16.7.1 Non-availability of legal aid
    • 16.7.2 Lack of legal expertise
    • 16.7.3 Imbalance of power
    • 16.7.4 No system of precedent
    • 16.7.5 ‘Legalism’ in arbitration
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 17 Tribunals
  • Introduction
  • 17.1 Background
  • 17.2 What is a tribunal?
  • 17.3 The organisation of tribunals: the Tribunals Service
    • 17.3.1 Problems with the old tribunal system
      • Lack of independence
      • Lack of coherence
      • Inconsistency of appeals
    • 17.3.2 The First-Tier and Upper Tribunals
  • 17.4 Membership of tribunals
  • 17.5 Appointment of tribunal judges and lay members
  • 17.6 Access to the employment tribunal system: the Unison case
  • 17.7 Supervising the tribunal system
  • 17.8 Legalism in tribunals
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Chapter 18 Criminal and civil appeals
  • Introduction
  • 18.1 Criminal appeals
    • 18.1.1 Appeals from magistrates’ courts
    • 18.1.2 Appeals to the Crown Court from magistrates’ courts
    • 18.1.3 Appeals by way of case stated from magistrates’ courts to the High Court
    • 18.1.4 Applications for judicial review of decisions made by magistrates’ courts
    • 18.1.5 Bail: appeals from magistrates’ courts
    • 18.1.6 Appeals from the Crown Court
      • Appeal against conviction
      • Appeal against sentence
    • 18.1.7 Miscarriages of justice and the Criminal Cases Review Commission
    • 18.1.8 Bail: appeals from the Crown Court
    • 18.1.9 Attorney General’s references
    • 18.1.10 Appeals by way of case stated from Crown Court decisions
    • 18.1.11 Applications for judicial review of decisions of the Crown Court
    • 18.1.12 Appeals to the Supreme Court
      • Appeal from the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division)
      • Appeal from the High Court
  • 18.2 Civil appeals
    • 18.2.1 Permission to appeal
    • 18.2.2 The nature and consequences of a civil appeal
    • 18.2.3 Avenues of appeal
    • 18.2.4 Composition of the Court of Appeal (Civil Division)
    • 18.2.5 Leapfrog appeals in civil courts
    • 18.2.6 ‘Second appeals’ to the Court of Appeal and appeals to the Supreme Court
  • Summary
  • Questions
    • Sample question and outline answer
      • Question
      • Outline answer
  • Further reading
• Index
• List of Illustrations
• List of Tables
• Images
  • Chapter 2 An overview of the English legal system
  • Chapter 3 Legislation and the law-making process
  • Chapter 4 The interpretation of statutes
  • Chapter 5 The doctrine of judicial precedent
  • Chapter 6 The law and institutions of the European Union (EU)
  • Chapter 7 Human rights in the United Kingdom
  • Chapter 8 The judiciary
  • Chapter 9 The legal profession
  • Chapter 10 Access to justice
  • Chapter 11 The criminal process: the suspect and the police
  • Chapter 12 The criminal process: pre-trial and trial
  • Chapter 13 The jury
  • Chapter 14 Sentencing
  • Chapter 15 The civil process
  • Chapter 17 Tribunals
  • Chapter 18 Criminal and civil appeals

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