Efnisyfirlit

• Cover
• Title page
• Copyright
• Brief Contents
• Contents
• Preface
• 1 The Science of Plant Ecology
  • 1.1 Ecology Is a Science
    • Where does scientific knowledge come from?
    • Scientific research involves objectivity, subjectivity, choice, and chance
    • Observational studies detect and quantify patterns
    • Experiments are central to research
    • In ecology, “controls” are what you are using for baseline comparisons
    • How do we test theories?
    • Studies can lead to specific results but contribute to general understanding
    • Science is ultimately consistent, but getting to consistency is a challenge
  • 1.2 Ecological Phenomena Are Heterogeneous in Many Ways
  • 1.3 Plant Ecology Has Developed through the Interaction of Observation, Measurement, Analysis, Technology, and Theory
    • Plant ecology is situated in the more general theoretical framework of ecology
    • Ecology has a range of subdisciplines
    • Science is a human endeavor
• PART I: Individuals and Their Environments
  • 2 Photosynthesis and Light
    • 2.1 Photosynthesis Is the Engine of Life on Earth
    • 2.2 Photosynthesis Is Affected by the Environment and by Plant Adaptations
      • The amount of light available limits photosynthesis
      • Carbon uptake is limited by the ways plants respond to their environments
      • Photosynthetic rates can vary among species in different habitats
    • 2.3 There Are Three Photosynthetic Pathways: C3, C4, and CAM
      • C3 photosynthesis is the most common and original type of photosynthesis
      • C4 photosynthesis is a specialized adaptation for rapid carbon uptake in warm, bright environments
      • Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM photosynthesis) is a specialized adaptation for minimizing water loss but at the cost of reduced photosynthesis and slow growth
    • 2.4 C3 Photosynthesis Is the Foundation for the Evolution of C4 and CAM
      • C4 and CAM evolved from C3 photosynthesis many different times in many different plant families
      • Photosynthesis first evolved about 2.5 billion years ago and has continued to evolve over Earth’s history
    • 2.5 C3, C4, and CAM Plants Each Have Distinct Growth Forms, Phenology, and Distributions
      • The three photosynthetic types dominate in different habitats and differ in growth form
      • C3 and C4 plants grow most actively in different seasons
      • C3, C4, and CAM species have different geographic distributions
    • 2.6 Plants Possess Many Different Adaptations to Their Light Environments
      • Many plants can detect the length of daylight and how it is changing seasonally
      • Leaves grown in sunlit and shaded conditions can differ in structure and function
  • 3 Water Relations and Thermal Energy Balance
    • The ancestors of modern plants evolved to live in terrestrial environments
    • 3.1 Water Potential Provides a Framework for Understanding How Plants Interact with Water in Their Environment
    • 3.2 Water Moves through a Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum
    • 3.3 Plants Manage Transpiration and Water Loss
      • Plants have different strategies for adapting to water availability
      • Water use efficiency is a measure of carbon gain versus water loss
      • Plants have different adaptations for coping with reduced water availability
      • Plants have complex physiological adaptations to drought
      • The anatomy and physiology of stomata shape plant responses to water loss
      • Leaf anatomy can be adaptive for survival and growth in arid environments
      • Roots, stems, and their tissues have adaptations for controlling plant water relations
    • 3.4 Everything in the Universe Has a Thermal Energy Balance
      • Radiant energy is always being exchanged between plants and their surroundings
      • Energy flows between plants and air, water and soil via conduction and convection
      • Water loss is accompanied by latent heat loss
      • Putting it all together: what determines leaf and whole-plant temperature?
      • Plants may have adaptations to extreme temperature regimes
  • 4 Soil and Terrestrial Plant Life
    • 4.1 Soils Have Distinct and Varied Composition, Characteristics, and Structure
      • It takes many thousands of years to create soil
      • Soil texture determines many of the properties of soils that affect plants
      • Soil pH has profound but indirect effects
      • Soils are characterized by horizons—layers with distinctive properties
      • Soils are the unique product of living organisms acting on soil parent material
    • 4.2 The Rhizosphere Is a Unique Environment Created by Roots and Their Interaction with Microorganisms
    • 4.3 Water Moves through the Soil to Reach Plants
    • 4.4 The Basic Building Blocks of Plants are C, H, and O from Air and Water, and Macronutrients and Micronutrients from the Soil
      • The stoichiometry of elements in plants and soils regulates many ecological processes
      • Nitrogen is often the limiting nutrient for plant growth
      • In some plants nitrogen comes from fixation by symbiotes
      • Phosphorus is limiting for plant growth in many environments
  • 5 Ecosystem Processes
    • 5.1 Ecosystem Processes Set the Stage for Life in a Salt Marsh
    • 5.2 Ecosystem Pools and Fluxes Form Cycles of Nutrients and Energy
    • 5.3 Carbon Is the Foundation of Life on Earth
      • Productivity measures how carbon moves between living things and their nonliving environment
      • Carbon is stored in the living and nonliving components of ecosystems
      • Soil food webs are the recycling engine of terrestrial ecosystems
      • Soil organic matter revisited: Bacteria are an essential component of soil organic matter
      • Primary productivity can be measured or estimated in a variety of ways
    • 5.4 The Nitrogen Cycle Is an Essential Component of Ecosystems
      • Bacteria mineralize organic N to inorganic forms taken up by plants
      • Nitrogen is lost from ecosystems through denitrification and leaching
      • Decomposition can immobilize soil nitrogen when NO3– or NH4+ are sequestered in bacterial biomass
    • 5.5 Nitrogen Deposition and Acid Precipitation Can Alter Ecosystems
    • 5.6 Cycles of Phosphorus and Other Elements Play Important Roles in Ecosystems
      • Microorganisms make phosphorus available for plants
      • Sulfur is critical for certain plant compounds
      • Calcium is necessary for many plant processes and structures
    • 5.7 The Water Cycle Is Central to Life and Climate
      • Water cycles at local and regional scales
      • Local water cycles can affect global cycles
• PART II: From Individuals to Populations
  • 6 Individual Growth and Reproduction
    • 6.1 Growth Begins with Seed Germination
    • 6.2 Plants Grow by Adding Repeated Units to Their Bodies
    • 6.3 Plant Growth Affects Resource Acquisition
      • Shoot architecture determines light interception
      • The growth of clonal plants affects their ability to take up patchy resources
    • 6.4 Plants Reproduce both Sexually and Asexually
      • Many plants reproduce vegetatively
      • Some plants produce seeds asexually
      • The sexual life cycles of plants involve alternation of generations
    • 6.5 The Movement of Pollen Is an Important Aspect of a Plant’s Life Cycle
      • The pollen of many plants is moved by the wind
      • Visual displays are important for attracting animal visitors
      • Animal visitors are attracted to plants with floral odors or acoustic guides
      • Plants often need to limit unwanted visits
      • How strongly are floral characteristics associated with particular pollinators?
      • Aquatic plants have special adaptations for pollination
    • 6.6 Plants Have Complicated Mating Systems
      • Inbreeding is mating between close relatives
      • Plants may vary in gender
      • Competition occurs among plants and among pollen grains
      • Most mating is between neighboring individuals
      • Plants may mate preferentially with individuals with similar phenotypes
      • Fitness can depend on a population’s composition
      • Mating systems have other important consequences
    • 6.7 Fruit and Seed Characteristics Affect Dispersal across Space and Time
      • The structures of seeds and fruits affect their dispersal
      • Plants can disperse across time via seed banks
  • 7 Plant Life Histories
    • 7.1 Trade-Offs Are a Central Cause of Variation in Life History Patterns
      • Trade-offs are difficult to measure
      • An important trade-off is in the size and number of seeds
    • 7.2 Evolution Acts on the Schedule of Survival and Reproduction
      • How long a plant lives and when it does its growing is part of its life history strategy
    • 7.3 Several Theories Address Life History Strategies
      • Demographic life history theory is based on evolutionary principles
      • r- and K-selection theory was influential in earlier thinking about life histories
      • r- and K-strategy theory was extended to the ecology of plants
      • Grime’s triangular model focuses on the ecological conditions favoring different life history strategies
      • Demographic life history theory has been tied to patterns of reproductive allocation
      • Other theories of life history strategies are based on examining plant traits
    • 7.4 Year-to-Year Variation in the Environment Shapes Life Histories
      • Among-year demographic variation reduces fitness
      • Bet-hedging strategies can reduce the variance in fitness
      • Seed germination is triggered by many factors
      • Masting can result in synchronization of flowering among individuals
    • 7.5 Phenology Is the Within-Year Schedule of Growth and Reproduction
      • The timing of growth is driven by both abiotic and biotic factors
      • The timing of reproduction may be due to abiotic factors
      • The timing of reproduction may be due to biotic factors
  • 8 Population Structure, Growth, and Decline
    • 8.1 Plant Biology Creates Special Issues for Population Studies
    • 8.2 Plant Populations Are Structured by Age, Size, and Developmental Stage
      • Plant population structure is complicated because plants can change size or form at variable rates
    • 8.3 Studying Population Growth Usually Involves Models of Changes in Population Structure
      • Life cycle graphs are useful models of plant demography and its relationship to data acquisition
      • Estimating vital rates can be done several ways
      • There are several approaches to building models for structured populations
      • Analyzing demographic models gives information on population growth rates and population composition
      • Measuring lifetime reproduction gives us the net reproductive rate of the population
      • Reproductive value is the contribution of each stage to population growth
      • Sensitivity and elasticity indicate how individual matrix elements affect population growth
      • Life table response experiments can examine the demographic differences among populations
      • Ecologists are beginning to study demography at larger spatial scales
      • There are additional approaches to modeling plant demography
      • Plant populations are heterogeneous
    • 8.4 Demographic Studies of Long-Lived Plants Require Creative Methods
    • 8.5 Population Growth Fluctuates Randomly over Time
      • There are two general types of random variation
      • Random fluctuations reduce long-term growth rates
      • Studying variable population growth requires data recorded over many years
    • 8.6 Demographic Models Have Strengths and Limitations
  • 9 Evolution: Processes and Change
    • 9.1 Natural Selection Is a Primary Cause of Evolutionary Change
      • Variation in phenotype is necessary for natural selection
      • Three conditions are necessary for evolution by natural selection
    • 9.2 Heritability Measures the Genetic Basis of Phenotypic Variation
      • Heritability is a measure of resemblances among relatives
      • Phenotypic variation can be partitioned into genetic and nongenetic components
      • The environment can interact with the genome to determine the phenotype
      • Genotypes are often nonrandomly distributed among environments
    • 9.3 Patterns of Adaptation Are the Result of Natural Selection
      • Heavy-metal tolerance is an example of genetic differentiation
      • Adaptation to different light conditions is an example of adaptive plasticity
      • Environmental effects can extend over generations
      • Phenotypic plasticity is important for understanding other ecological concepts
    • 9.4 Natural Selection Can Occur at Levels Other Than the Individual
    • 9.5 Other Processes Can Cause Evolutionary Change
      • Mutation, migration, and sexual reproduction are processes that increase genetic variation
      • Genetic drift is a process that decreases genetic variation
      • These evolutionary processes have important conservation implications
    • 9.6 Evolutionary Processes Can Affect Variation among Populations
    • 9.7 Ecotypes Are Different Forms of a Species That Are Adapted to Different Environments
    • 9.8 Natural Selection Can Cause the Origin of New Species
    • 9.9 Adaptation and Speciation Can Happen through Hybridization
• PART III: Population Interactions and Communities
  • 10 Competition and Other Plant Interactions
    • 10.1 Individuals Compete for Limited Resources
      • What are the mechanisms of resource competition?
      • Resource competition often depends on plant size
      • Plant competition frequently occurs between seedlings
      • Seedling competition can lead to self-thinning
    • 10.2 There Are Several Approaches to Experiments for Studying Competition
      • How we quantify competition can affect experimental results
      • Competition experiments were originally conducted in greenhouse or garden environments
    • 10.3 Interactions among Species Range from Competition to Facilitation
      • Different theories attempt to explain how competitive trade-offs lead to strategies
      • Are there fixed competitive hierarchies?
      • Does allelopathy between species explain patterns in nature?
      • Plants can change the environment to the advantage of other plants
      • Competitive exclusion sometimes determines species distributions
    • 10.4 Competition and Facilitation May Vary along Environmental Gradients
      • There are conflicting models of how productivity affects the importance of competition and facilitation
      • Experimental evidence provides a mixed picture about the roles of competition and facilitation along productivity gradients
      • Research syntheses provide some help in interpreting the evidence
      • Can we resolve the conflicting results?
      • Models of plant competition can help us to better understand competitive processes and the role of competition in species coexistence
      • Modern coexistence theory is a framework for understanding how competition affects coexistence
      • Models within the framework of modern coexistence theory have stimulated research and discovery
      • New research can extend our understanding of coexistence
  • 11 Herbivory and Other Trophic Interactions
    • 11.1 The Effects of Herbivores on Individual Plants Depend on What Is Eaten
    • 11.2 Herbivores Can Alter Plant Population Composition and Dynamics
      • Herbivores can change where plants grow
      • Herbivory on seeds has both negative and positive consequences for plant populations
      • People use insect herbivores for biological control
    • 11.3 Herbivores Affect Plant Communities in Different Ways
      • Herbivore behavior can change plant community composition
      • Herbivory might result in apparent competition among plants
      • Domesticated and introduced herbivores can shape plant communities
      • How important is herbivory in shaping the natural world?
    • 11.4 Plants Defend Themselves against Herbivores by Different Means
      • Plants use a variety of physical defenses to protect themselves
      • Plants have evolved a wide range of chemical defenses against herbivores
      • Plant chemical defenses can be constant or be induced by herbivory
      • Evolutionary consequences of plant-herbivore interactions
    • 11.5 Plants Are Involved in Many Kinds of Trophic Interactions
      • Some plants are parasites of other plants
    • 11.6 Plants Interact with Pathogens, Endophytes, and Mycorrhizae in Complex Ways
      • Plants are attacked by many different disease-causing organisms
      • Plants have immediate defenses and long-term evolutionary responses to pathogens
      • Pathogens can shape plant populations and communities
      • Plant pathogens can interact in complex ways with other organisms
      • Endophytes are symbiotic organisms that live inside plant cells
      • Mycorrhizae are essential for terrestrial life
      • Arbuscular mycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae are the two most ecologically important groups
      • Specialized mycorrhizal interactions include those associated with the Ericaceae and Orchidaceae
      • Mycorrhizae function in other ways in addition to nutrient uptake
      • Are mycorrhizal fungi mutualists or parasites?
      • The influence of mycorrhizae can depend on plant-plant interactions as well as on soil nutrients
  • 12 Community Diversity and Structure
    • 12.1 There Are Many Ways of Thinking about Communities
      • The debate between Henry Gleason and Frederic Clements shaped modern ideas about plant communities
      • Today’s ecologists have a different perspective on the issues in contention
      • The concept of communities is useful but has often been debated
    • 12.2 Biodiversity Describes Variation in Biological Organisms and Systems
      • Biodiversity metrics can be built from different types of information
      • Inventory diversity is the variation of types of objects
      • Differentiation diversity is the variation among units
      • Phylogenetic diversity is variation in evolutionary relationships
      • Functional diversity is variation in traits
      • Different types of biodiversity information can be combined
    • 12.3 Communities Can Be Measured in Many Ways
      • Measuring species richness can involve simple sampling procedures or complex mathematical estimates
      • There are many ways to sample communities
      • One measure of a plant community is its physiognomy
      • Long-term studies are important for measuring communities
    • 12.4 Plant Communities Can Be Compared by Many Methods
      • Non-numerical techniques were the first methods for comparing communities
      • Communities can be compared by single factors using univariate techniques
      • Most community comparisons use multivariate techniques
    • 12.5 Communities Are Distributed across Landscapes
      • Ordination is a group of techniques for describing landscape patterns
      • Patterns of species difference among communities are caused by variation in the environment
      • What types of data are used?
      • Classification is an alternative approach to describing communities in a landscape
  • 13 Community Dynamics and Succession
    • 13.1 Conflicting Theories Have Attempted to Explain the Mechanisms of Succession
      • Are communities dynamic mosaics or regulated by predictable processes?
      • Scientific understanding can be influenced by methodology
    • 13.2 Successional Change Has Three General Causes
      • Disturbance size affects which species can colonize
      • Fire can cause disturbance
      • Wind can cause disturbance
      • Water can cause disturbance
      • Animals can cause disturbance
      • Earthquakes and volcanoes can cause disturbance
      • Disease can cause disturbance
      • Humans can cause disturbance
    • 13.3 Which Species Are Available for Colonization Affects Succession
      • The dispersal capacity of species affects their colonization capability
      • Species can emerge from the propagule pool
    • 13.4 Species Performance Determines the Pattern of Successional Change
      • Species vary in their life histories
      • Species interactions are central to species replacement during succession
      • Resource availability can change during succession
    • 13.5 The Pathway of Succession Can Vary
      • Succession may or may not be predictable
      • Understanding successional processes is critical for community restoration
    • 13.6 Ecologists Have Reconsidered the Concept of Climax
  • 14 Local Abundance, Diversity, and Rarity
    • 14.1 Are Dominant Species Competitively Superior?
      • There are many ways to be rare but few ways to be common
      • Being rare can vary over space and time
      • What makes a species common or rare?
    • 14.2 Biological Invasions Are a Worldwide Concern
      • Why do some species become invasive?
      • What makes a community susceptible to invasion?
      • Efforts have been made to integrate explanations for invasiveness and susceptibility to invasion
      • Invasive species may alter many community properties and threaten biodiversity
    • 14.3 Species Richness and Abundances Differ Greatly among Communities
      • Abundance curves illustrate community structure graphically
      • Productivity and diversity are related in complex ways within communities
      • Trade-offs and specialization contribute to diversity in heterogeneous environments
      • Disturbances might maintain community diversity
    • 14.4 Does Increased Diversity Enhance Community Productivity or Stability?
      • Community dominance and diversity can affect ecosystem processes
      • Diversity has been hypothesized to increase stability
      • Diversity, rarity, and commonness vary with spatial extent
• PART IV: From Landscapes to Planet Earth
  • 15 Landscapes: Pattern and Scale
    • 15.1 Understanding Scale Is Critical to Understanding Ecological Processes
      • Patterns and processes can vary with scale
      • Scale interacts with environmental heterogeneity
      • Processes and patterns may vary as grain and extent change
      • Spatial pattern and scale can be analyzed using graphical and statistical methods
    • 15.2 Landscape Ecology Involves Measuring Spatial Patterns and Looking at Their Effects
      • Defining patches is a key step in measuring patterns
      • Patches can be quantified by their sizes, shapes, and spatial arrangement
      • Spatial patterns determine many ecological processes
      • How one analyzes landscape data affects whether the landscape appears to be continuous or discrete
    • 15.3 Ecological Processes Occur across Landscapes
      • Island biogeography theory
      • Ecologists have debated whether there is a set of rules that determines how communities are put together
      • Metapopulation theory
      • Demographic processes occur across landscapes
      • Metacommunity theory
    • 15.4 Ecological Processes at the Level of Landscapes Is Important for Plant Conservation
      • Fragmentation of landscapes is a major threat to biodiversity
      • Key landscape characteristics are edges, connectivity, and nestedness
      • Ecological theory can help guide reserve design
  • 16 Climate, Plants, and Climate Change
    • 16.1 There Are Important Differences between Climate and Weather
    • 16.2 The Kinetic Energy of Molecules Determines Heat and Temperature
      • The sun’s angle is the main factor determining the radiant energy received at Earth’s surface
      • There are long-term cycles in Earth’s path around the sun that affect radiant energy at Earth’s surface
    • 16.3 Precipitation Patterns Vary across the Earth
      • Global patterns are determined by air moving in three dimensions at huge spatial scales
      • Continental-scale movement of air and water explain regional differences in snow and rain
      • Seasonal variation in precipitation is an important component of climate
      • The El Niño Southern Oscillation affects rainfall at large spatial scales and intermediate time scales
      • Temperature and rainfall predictability affect plant ecology and evolution
    • 16.4 Anthropogenic Global Climate Change Is Caused by Humans and Is Affecting Vegetation
      • The global carbon cycle is central to Earth’s climates
      • Increasing atmospheric CO2 has direct effects on plants
      • The greenhouse effect warms the Earth due to greenhouse gases
    • 16.5 Humans Are Changing the Global Carbon Cycle
      • Fossil fuel combustion is the most important factor changing the greenhouse effect
      • Deforestation and land use change also affect climate
    • 16.6 Agriculture Is a Major Source of Greenhouse Gases
    • 16.7 Global Climate Change Is Already Occurring
    • 16.8 Large Changes Are Predicted for Earth’s Climates, but Some Impacts Can Still Be Mitigated
    • 16.9 Changing Climates Are Affecting Species and Ecological Systems
    • 16.10 Responses to Ongoing and Predicted Climate Change
  • 17 Paleoecology
    • 17.1 Plants Invaded the Land in the Paleozoic Era
    • 17.2 The Mesozoic Era Was Dominated by Gymnosperms and Saw the Origin of the Angiosperms
      • Gymnosperms were the first group of dominant seed plants
      • The breakup of Pangaea happened as the angiosperms rose to dominance
      • The boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods resulted in big changes in the flora and fauna
    • 17.3 The Cenozoic Era Was Dominated by Angiosperms
    • 17.4 Many Different Methods Are Used to Uncover the Past
    • 17.5 Vegetation Change in the Recent Past Has Been Dominated by the Waxing and Waning of Glaciers
      • At the glacial maximum, climates and habitats were very different from today
      • Modern plant communities began to appear as the glaciers retreated
      • Climatic fluctuations of the recent past continue to shape the vegetation
  • 18 Biomes and Physiognomy
    • 18.1 Vegetation Can Be Categorized by Its Structure and Function
      • Plant physiognomy varies across the globe
      • Forests are closed canopy systems dominated by trees
      • Tree line defines the edge between treed and treeless landscapes
      • Grasslands and woodlands dominate in areas of lower precipitation
      • Shrublands and deserts are found in very dry or cool regions
    • 18.2 Biomes with Similar Vegetation Forms May Be the Result of Convergent Evolution
    • 18.3 Moist Tropical Forests
      • Tropical rainforest
      • Tropical montane forest
    • 18.4 Seasonal Tropical Forests and Woodlands
      • Tropical deciduous forest
      • Thorn forest
      • Tropical woodland
    • 18.5 Temperate Deciduous Forest
    • 18.6 Other Temperate Forests and Woodlands
      • Temperate rainforest
      • Temperate evergreen forest
      • Temperate woodland
    • 18.7 Taiga
    • 18.8 Temperate Shrubland
    • 18.9 Grasslands
      • Temperate grassland
      • Tropical savanna
    • 18.10 Deserts
      • Hot desert
      • Cold desert
    • 18.11 Alpine and Arctic Vegetation
      • Alpine grassland and shrubland
      • Tundra
  • 19 Global Biodiversity Patterns, Loss, and Conservation
    • 19.1 Biodiversity Varies Enormously across the Earth
      • Global biodiversity increases toward the tropics
    • 19.2 What Explains Global Biodiversity Patterns?
      • Explanations for the latitudinal diversity gradient include energy, water, and environmental heterogeneity, but all explanations have limitations
      • There are also regional and global patterns of β-diversity
    • 19.3 There Are Distinctive Regional and Continental Patterns of Plant Biodiversity
      • Continents at the same latitudes differ in species diversity
      • Transition zones may have higher diversity due to overlaps in species’ distributions
      • Mountains and mountainous regions have distinct but complex patterns of species diversity
    • 19.4 Regional Diversity and Local Diversity Can Influence One Another
      • Endemism, isolation, and global biodiversity hotspots
    • 19.5 Patterns of Species Diversity May Be Explained in General Terms
      • Null models and the neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography pose a different approach to explaining patterns of species diversity
      • Other explanations have been posed to explain variation in biodiversity, but patterns are scale dependent
    • 19.6 Biodiversity Is Rapidly Being Lost Globally
      • What is being lost?
      • Biodiversity is threatened by human activity
      • Does human domination require a new definition of the biomes?
      • Both rare and common species face threats in a range of communities
      • Human population growth and land use contribute to biodiversity loss
    • 19.7 Ecosystem Services Are One Way of Quantifying the Benefits of Natural Systems to Humans
      • Why should anyone care about plant biodiversity?
      • Conservation and restoration of biodiversity: a ray of hope?
• Glossary
• Literature Cited
• Index

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