Efnisyfirlit

• Cover Page
• Title page
• Copyright page
• Dedication
• Preface
• Guide to the Online Resources
• Table of Contents
• Abbreviations
• Table of cases
  • United Kingdom
  • Court of Justice: alphabetical
  • Court of Justice: numerical
  • General Court: alphabetical
  • General Court: numerical
  • European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
  • Commission Decisions
  • National cases
    • Belgium
    • Czech Republic
    • Estonia
    • France
    • Germany
    • Italy
    • Poland
• Table of legislation
  • EU treaties and international instruments
  • EU secondary legislation
    • Regulations
    • Directives
  • National Legislation
    • Estonia
    • Finland
    • France
    • Germany
    • Ireland
    • Netherlands
    • United Kingdom
• Part I
  • 1 From EEC to EU: A Brief History of the Development of the Union
    • 1.1 Introduction
    • 1.2 Development prior to the Single European Act
    • 1.3 Enlargement
      • 1.3.1 Current membership
      • 1.3.2 Process for joining the EU
      • 1.3.3 Conditions for membership
      • 1.3.4 Beyond enlargement: the EU’s European Neighbourhood Policy
    • 1.4 Kick-starting the internal market: the Single European Act
    • 1.5 Wider or deeper? Treaty on European Union
      • 1.5.1 Monetary union
      • 1.5.2 Union citizenship
      • 1.5.3 The other two pillars of the Union
    • 1.6 Impact of the Treaty of Amsterdam
      • 1.6.1 Strengthening the EC pillar
      • 1.6.2 Equality and fundamental rights
      • 1.6.3 Closer cooperation
    • 1.7 Preparations for enlargement: Treaty of Nice
      • 1.7.1 Changes to the TEU: enhanced cooperation
      • 1.7.2 Changes to the EC pillar
      • 1.7.3 Ratification of the Treaty of Nice
    • 1.8 Doomed: Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe
    • 1.9 Democracy and effectiveness? Treaty of Lisbon
      • 1.9.1 Themes of the Lisbon Treaty
      • 1.9.2 Constitutional issues
      • 1.9.3 Institutional matters
      • 1.9.4 Policy matters
      • 1.9.5 Key differences from the Constitution
    • 1.10 Theories of integration
      • 1.10.1 Functionalism
      • 1.10.2 Neofunctionalism
      • 1.10.3 Intergovernmentalism
      • 1.10.4 Multi-level governance
    • 1.11 Conflicting attitudes towards the Union
    • 1.12 Conclusions: the future
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 2 Institutions of the Union: Composition and Powers
    • 2.1 Introduction
    • 2.2 The institutions
    • 2.3 European Parliament (Article 14 TEU; Articles 223–34 TFEU)
      • 2.3.1 Appointment
      • 2.3.2 Composition
      • 2.3.3 Functions
        • 2.3.3.1 Consultative and advisory role
        • 2.3.3.2 Legislative role
        • 2.3.3.3 Supervisory role
          • Role of the European Ombudsman
          • Protection of Human Rights
    • 2.4 European Council (Article 15 TEU; Articles 235–6 TFEU)
    • 2.5 Council (Article 16 TEU; Articles 237–43 TFEU)
      • 2.5.1 Appointment
      • 2.5.2 Composition
      • 2.5.3 Functions
      • 2.5.4 The emergence of qualified majority voting
      • 2.5.5 COREPER
    • 2.6 Commission (Article 17 TEU; Articles 244–50 TFEU)
      • 2.6.1 Appointment
      • 2.6.2 Composition
      • 2.6.3 Probity
      • 2.6.4 Management powers of the Commission president
      • 2.6.5 Functions
        • 2.6.5.1 Initiator
        • 2.6.5.2 Watchdog
        • 2.6.5.3 Executive
        • 2.6.5.4 External representation
    • 2.7 Economic and Social Committee (Articles 301–4 TFEU)
    • 2.8 Committee of the Regions
    • 2.9 Budgetary procedures (Articles 313–16 TFEU)
    • 2.10 Court of Auditors (Articles 285–7 TFEU)
    • 2.11 Court of Justice of the European Union (Article 19 TEU; Articles 251–81 TFEU)
      • 2.11.1 Appointment
      • 2.11.2 Composition
      • 2.11.3 Functions
      • 2.11.4 General Court
    • 2.12 Lisbon Treaty
      • 2.12.1 European Council President
      • 2.12.2 High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy
    • 2.13 EU institutions outside the EU Framework
    • 2.14 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 3 Scope of the EU Treaty: Laws and Lawmaking
    • 3.1 Introduction
    • 3.2 Conferred competence
    • 3.3 The scope of EU competence
      • 3.3.1 General principles
      • 3.3.2 External competence
        • 3.3.2.1 Trade
        • 3.3.2.2 Foreign and security policy
        • 3.3.2.3 Impact of Lisbon
    • 3.4 Types of competence
    • 3.5 Subsidiarity
      • 3.5.1 General
      • 3.5.2 Test for the exercise of concurrent powers
      • 3.5.3 Role of the national parliaments
      • 3.5.4 Principle of proportionality
    • 3.6 Basis for Union action
      • 3.6.1 Broad provisions for action
        • 3.6.1.1 Internal market clauses
        • 3.6.1.2 Flexibility clause
      • 3.6.2 Implied powers
    • 3.7 Union acts
      • 3.7.1 Regulations
      • 3.7.2 Directives
      • 3.7.3 Decisions
      • 3.7.4 Recommendations and opinions
      • 3.7.5 Acts sui generis
      • 3.7.6 Boundary between different types of act
      • 3.7.7 Publication
      • 3.7.8 Soft law
      • 3.7.9 Acts under the CFSP
    • 3.8 Lawmaking process
      • 3.8.1 Ordinary legislative procedure
      • 3.8.2 Special legislative procedures: consultation procedure
      • 3.8.3 Special legislative procedures: assent
      • 3.8.4 Delegated and implementing acts
      • 3.8.5 Enhanced cooperation
      • 3.8.6 ‘Passerelle’ provisions and Treaty amendment
        • 3.8.6.1 Passerelle clauses
        • 3.8.6.2 Revision of the Treaties
        • 3.8.6.3 Brake and accelerator clauses
    • 3.9 Problems in the lawmaking process—democracy, transparency and efficiency
      • 3.9.1 Democracy
      • 3.9.2 Transparency
      • 3.9.3 Efficiency
    • 3.10 Sources of EU law
    • 3.11 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 4 Principle of Supremacy of EU Law
    • 4.1 Introduction
    • 4.2 The problem of priorities
    • 4.3 The Court of Justice’s contribution
      • 4.3.1 Development of the principle of supremacy
      • 4.3.2 National procedural rules: problems for the national courts
      • 4.3.3 EU rules which do not have direct effect
      • 4.3.4 Supremacy after Lisbon
    • 4.4 The Member States’ response
      • 4.4.1 Shades of supremacy
      • 4.4.2 Acceptance of supremacy
      • 4.4.3 Basis of acceptance
      • 4.4.4 Scope of supremacy
      • 4.4.5 ‘Kompetenz-kompetenz’
    • 4.5 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 5 Principles of Direct Applicability and Direct Effects
    • 5.1 Introduction
    • 5.2 Doctrine of direct effect
      • 5.2.1 Direct applicability
      • 5.2.2 Relevance of direct effect in EU law
      • 5.2.3 Treaty articles
      • 5.2.4 Regulations
      • 5.2.5 Directives: accepting the principle of direct effect
      • 5.2.6 Direct effect of directives: when does the obligation arise?
      • 5.2.7 Directives: faulty implementation
      • 5.2.8 Must rights be conferred by the directive?
      • 5.2.9 Member States’ initial response
      • 5.2.10 Vertical and horizontal direct effect: a necessary distinction
      • 5.2.11 Vertical direct effect: reliance against public body
      • 5.2.12 Three-party situations
      • 5.2.13 ‘Incidental’ horizontal effect
      • 5.2.14 Directives and general principles of EU law
      • 5.2.15 No direct effect to impose criminal liability
      • 5.2.16 Direct effect of directives: conclusions
      • 5.2.17 Decisions
      • 5.2.18 Recommendations and opinions
      • 5.2.19 International agreements to which the EU is a party
      • 5.2.20 Temporal limitations to the principle of direct effect
    • 5.3 Principle of indirect effect
      • 5.3.1 The scope of the doctrine: Marleasing
      • 5.3.2 The limits of Marleasing
      • 5.3.3 Indirect effect: when does the obligation arise?
      • 5.3.4 Indirect effect in other contexts
    • 5.4 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 6 General Principles of Law
    • 6.1 Introduction
    • 6.2 Overview of the Treaty framework and development of general principles
      • 6.2.1 Initial phase
      • 6.2.2 Sources of rights: traditions common to the Member States
      • 6.2.3 Sources of rights: ECHR and other international human rights Treaties
      • 6.2.4 Scope of general principles
      • 6.2.5 Circumstances in which general principles may be used: scope of EU law
    • 6.3 Assessment
    • 6.4 The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights
      • 6.4.1 Background
      • 6.4.2 Structure and content
      • 6.4.3 Horizontal provisions: scope
      • 6.4.4 Horizontal provisions: compatibility with national constitution and with the ECHR
      • 6.4.5 CJ’s reaction
    • 6.5 Relationship with ECHR
      • 6.5.1 Historical development
      • 6.5.2 Lisbon and accession
    • 6.6 Rules of administrative justice
      • 6.6.1 Proportionality
      • 6.6.2 Legal certainty
      • 6.6.3 Procedural rights
      • 6.6.4 Natural justice: the right to a hearing
      • 6.6.5 The duty to give reasons
      • 6.6.6 The right to due process
      • 6.6.7 Right to protection against self-incrimination
    • 6.7 Equality
    • 6.8 Subsidiarity
    • 6.9 Effectiveness
    • 6.10 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
• Part II
  • 7 Framework for Enforcement
    • 7.1 Introduction
    • 7.2 Action before the European Union Courts
      • 7.2.1 Actions against the institutions of the Union
        • 7.2.1.1 Significance of judicial review
        • 7.2.1.2 Jurisdiction of the GC
        • 7.2.1.3 Appeals to the CJ in judicial review cases
      • 7.2.2 Actions against Member States
        • 7.2.2.1 Right to intervene
        • 7.2.2.2 Interim relief
      • 7.2.3 Action against individuals
    • 7.3 Action before national courts
      • 7.3.1 Basic principles
      • 7.3.2 Significance of actions before national courts
      • 7.3.3 Remedies in national courts
      • 7.3.4 Jurisdiction of the European Courts to give preliminary rulings
    • 7.4 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 8 Remedies in National Courts
    • 8.1 Introduction
    • 8.2 General principles regarding national procedural rules
      • 8.2.1 Overview of principles
      • 8.2.2 Equivalence and effectiveness
      • 8.2.3 Difficulties in application of national procedural autonomy with the principles of equivalence and effectiveness
    • 8.3 Meaning of ‘effectiveness’
      • 8.3.1 Jurisprudence in the field of sex-discrimination legislation
      • 8.3.2 The creation of new remedies?
    • 8.4 Principle of ‘equivalence’
    • 8.5 Impact of EU law on national remedies
      • 8.5.1 Interim relief
      • 8.5.2 Challenge to statutory provisions
      • 8.5.3 Damages
      • 8.5.4 Restitution
      • 8.5.5 Time limits
    • 8.6 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 9 State Liability
    • 9.1 Introduction
    • 9.2 Principle of state liability under Francovich
      • 9.2.1 The Francovich ruling
      • 9.2.2 Scope of the principle
        • 9.2.2.1 Type of action
        • 9.2.2.2 For whose actions is the state liable?
        • 9.2.2.3 Liability only where measure confers rights
      • 9.2.3 Conditions of liability
        • 9.2.3.1 Meaning of ‘sufficiently serious’
        • 9.2.3.2 The claimant must prove that damage has been suffered
        • 9.2.3.3 The damage must have been caused by the breach
      • 9.2.4 Brasserie du Pêcheur in the English courts
      • 9.2.5 Relationship of the principle of state liability with direct effect
      • 9.2.6 Classifying state liability in national law
      • 9.2.7 Criticisms of state liability
    • 9.3 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 10 The Preliminary Ruling Procedure
    • 10.1 Introduction
    • 10.2 The text of Article 267 TFEU and an overview of the procedure
      • 10.2.1 The historical importance of the Article 267 procedure
        • 10.2.1.1 Impact on development of EU law
      • 10.2.2 Nature of the preliminary ruling procedure
    • 10.3 The broad approach of the Court to Article 267 references
      • 10.3.1 What is a ‘court or tribunal’?
      • 10.3.2 Can arbitrators be a ‘court or tribunal’?
      • 10.3.3 The question must be a matter of Union law
      • 10.3.4 The Court’s role is one of interpretation of Union law not application to the facts
      • 10.3.5 The Court must not interfere with the matters within national court discretion
      • 10.3.6 National courts may refer cases on the validity of Union measures
      • 10.3.7 The practical reality of the CJ’s jurisdiction
    • 10.4 The Court’s refusal to give rulings in some cases
      • 10.4.1 The CJ can decline to hear cases brought in artificial proceedings
      • 10.4.2 The case must relate to a cross-border issue and not a purely internal situation
      • 10.4.3 A preliminary ruling must be ‘objectively required’
      • 10.4.4 The parties must challenge Union measures directly under Article 263 TFEU if they have standing
    • 10.5 National courts and the reference procedure
      • 10.5.1 When must a national court refer and when does it have choice?
      • 10.5.2 Article 267(3): The mandatory obligation to refer for courts against whom no appeal lies
      • 10.5.3 Article 267(2): courts that have a discretion whether to refer or not
      • 10.5.4 When does a ‘question’ of Union law arise?
        • 10.5.4.1 Previous rulings
        • 10.5.4.2 Acte clair
        • 10.5.4.3 The question may not be relevant to the case
        • 10.5.4.4 National courts can ignore national rules of precedent in order to refer cases
        • 10.5.4.5 How should non-final courts exercise their discretion to refer?
    • 10.6 What is the temporal effect of a ruling from the Court of Justice?
      • 10.6.1 Rulings involving interpretation are generally retrospective in effect
      • 10.6.2 Rulings as to the validity of Union measures: more flexible temporal effects
    • 10.7 The increasing workload of the Court of Justice: the need for reform
    • 10.8 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 11 Enforcement Actions
    • 11.1 Introduction
    • 11.2 Outline of enforcement mechanism
      • 11.2.1 Substantive areas covered by Article 258 TFEU
      • 11.2.2 Development of enforcement procedure
    • 11.3 Purpose of enforcement actions
    • 11.4 Liability of Member States
      • 11.4.1 Member States as defendants
      • 11.4.2 Meaning of ‘failure’
    • 11.5 Procedure
      • 11.5.1 Informal proceedings
      • 11.5.2 Formal proceedings: first stage
        • 11.5.2.1 Formal notice
        • 11.5.2.2 Reasoned opinion
        • 11.5.2.3 Challenging a reasoned opinion
        • 11.5.2.4 Time limits
      • 11.5.3 Formal proceedings: second stage
    • 11.6 Burden of proof
    • 11.7 Common defences
      • 11.7.1 Reciprocity
      • 11.7.2 Necessity and force majeure
      • 11.7.3 Constitutional difficulties
      • 11.7.4 De facto compliance
      • 11.7.5 Domestic law is in compliance
      • 11.7.6 Treaty derogation
      • 11.7.7 Public order
    • 11.8 Consequences of a ruling and of a failure to comply
      • 11.8.1 Obligations following a ruling under Article 258 TFEU
      • 11.8.2 Penalty payments for continuing failure to comply
    • 11.9 Action by Member States (Article 259 TFEU)
    • 11.10 Special enforcement procedures: state aid, breach of Article 114(4) TFEU procedures and measures to prevent serious internal disturbances
    • 11.11 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 12 Direct Action for Annulment
    • 12.1 Introduction
    • 12.2 Judicial review: overview
      • 12.2.1 Acts that may be challenged
      • 12.2.2 Acts of Parliament
      • 12.2.3 Acts of other bodies
      • 12.2.4 Review under TEU
      • 12.2.5 Review of national measures
    • 12.3 Locus standi: who may bring an action?
      • 12.3.1 Privileged applicants
        • 12.3.1.1 Semi-privileged applicants
      • 12.3.2 Non-privileged applicants
        • 12.3.2.1 Representative bodies
      • 12.3.3 Challenging acts addressed to another person
        • 12.3.3.1 The measure must be, as far as the applicant is concerned, an act which is of direct and individual concern or a regulatory act which is of direct concern and requires no implementing measures
        • 12.3.3.2 The act must be of individual concern to the applicant
          • 12.3.3.2.1 Acts referable specifically to applicant’s situation and affecting a closed class
          • 12.3.3.2.2 Acts issued as a result of proceedings initiated by applicant or in which the applicant has played a legitimate part
          • 12.3.3.2.3 Anti-dumping and competition cases
        • 12.3.3.3 A regulatory act not entailing any implementing measures
        • 12.3.3.4 Can the restrictive interpretation of locus standi for individuals be justified?
        • 12.3.3.5 A false dawn: Jégo-Quére and Unión de Pequeños Agricultores (UPA)
    • 12.4 Time limits
      • 12.4.1 Expiry of time limit
    • 12.5 The merits
      • 12.5.1 Lack of competence
      • 12.5.2 Infringement of an essential procedural requirement
      • 12.5.3 Infringement of the Treaties or any rule of law relating to their application
      • 12.5.4 Misuse of power
    • 12.6 Consequences of a successful action
    • 12.7 Indirect review under Article 277 TFEU
      • 12.7.1 Scope
      • 12.7.2 Proceedings in which Article 277 TFEU may be invoked
      • 12.7.3 Reviewable acts
        • 12.7.3.1 Is the scope for challenge under Article 277 TFEU limited to general measures?
      • 12.7.4 Locus standi
      • 12.7.5 Consequences of a successful challenge
    • 12.8 Action for failure to act: overview of the provisions
      • 12.8.1 Reviewable omissions
      • 12.8.2 Privileged applicants
      • 12.8.3 Individuals
        • 12.8.3.1 Measures subject to challenge by individuals
        • 12.8.3.2 Challengeable acts
        • 12.8.3.3 Procedural rights
    • 12.9 Effect of definition of position
      • 12.9.1 Definition of position and Article 263 TFEU
    • 12.10 Consequences of a successful action
    • 12.11 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 13 Union Liability in Tort: Action for Damages
    • 13.1 Introduction
    • 13.2 Scope of non-contractual liability
      • 13.2.1 The Treaty provisions
    • 13.3 Locus standi
      • 13.3.1 Personal limitations
      • 13.3.2 Time limits
      • 13.3.3 Relationship with Articles 263 and 265 TFEU
    • 13.4 Elements of non-contractual liability
    • 13.5 Wrongful acts or omissions
      • 13.5.1 Action taken under the TFEU
    • 13.6 Establishing an unlawful act
      • 13.6.1 Development of the Schöppenstedt formula: a brief overview
        • 13.6.1.1 A legislative measure involving choices of economic policy
        • 13.6.1.2 A breach of a superior rule of law for the protection of individuals
        • 13.6.1.3 The breach must be ‘sufficiently serious’
      • 13.6.2 The modern approach: Bergaderm and beyond
      • 13.6.3 Individual acts
    • 13.7 Liability for lawful acts
    • 13.8 Damage
      • 13.8.1 Only specific losses are recoverable
      • 13.8.2 Loss and third parties
      • 13.8.3 Loss of a chance
      • 13.8.4 Payment of damages in national currency
    • 13.9 Causation
      • 13.9.1 Break in the chain of causation
      • 13.9.2 Loss must be foreseeable
      • 13.9.3 Contributory negligence
    • 13.10 Impact of other possible causes of action
    • 13.11 Relationship between Article 340(2) TFEU and other remedies
    • 13.12 Concurrent liability
    • 13.13 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
• Part III
  • 14 Introduction to the Internal Market
    • 14.1 Introduction
    • 14.2 Overview of the four freedoms
      • 14.2.1 Free movement of goods
      • 14.2.2 Free movement of people
      • 14.2.3 Freedom to provide services
      • 14.2.4 Free movement of capital
    • 14.3 Common themes in the free movement provisions
      • 14.3.1 Economic activity
      • 14.3.2 Internal situations and migration
      • 14.3.3 Discrimination or access to the market?
      • 14.3.4 Direct effect
      • 14.3.5 Need for harmonisation
    • 14.4 Relationship between the freedoms
    • 14.5 The social dimension
    • 14.6 Completion of the internal market: an Area of Freedom, Security and Justice
    • 14.7 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 15 Harmonisation
    • 15.1 Introduction
    • 15.2 The nature of harmonisation
      • 15.2.1 Positive and negative harmonisation
      • 15.2.2 Harmonisation and unification
      • 15.2.3 Other forms of Union action
    • 15.3 Types of harmonisation
      • 15.3.1 Total harmonisation
      • 15.3.2 The Union’s power to re-legislate
      • 15.3.3 Minimum harmonisation
      • 15.3.4 Minimum harmonisation and reverse discrimination
      • 15.3.5 Technical harmonisation and the ‘new approach’
      • 15.3.6 Other types of harmonisation
      • 15.3.7 The ‘country of origin’ principle and mutual recognition
    • 15.4 Article 114 TFEU and harmonisation
      • 15.4.1 The extent of the Union’s power to legislate under Article 114 TFEU
      • 15.4.2 Article 114 TFEU and ‘flanking policies’
      • 15.4.3 Article 114 TFEU as the basis for establishing EU agencies
      • 15.4.4 Derogation under Article 114 TFEU
    • 15.5 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 16 Customs Union
    • 16.1 Introduction
    • 16.2 Common customs tariff
    • 16.3 Prohibition between Member States of customs duties on imports and exports and of all charges of equivalent effect
      • 16.3.1 Scope of the prohibition
        • 16.3.1.1 Customs duties
        • 16.3.1.2 Charges having equivalent effect
      • 16.3.2 Distinction between customs duties and taxes
      • 16.3.3 An effects-based test
      • 16.3.4 Limitations on the prohibition: permissible charges
      • 16.3.5 Non-discriminatory charges
      • 16.3.6 Derogation from prohibition on customs duties
      • 16.3.7 Enforcing Article 30 TFEU
      • 16.3.8 Approaching Article 30 TFEU
    • 16.4 Prohibition of discriminatory taxation
      • 16.4.1 Meaning of taxation
      • 16.4.2 Scope of Article 110 TFEU
      • 16.4.3 Discriminatory measures
        • 16.4.3.1 Direct discrimination
        • 16.4.3.2 Indirect discrimination
        • 16.4.3.3 No domestic competing products
        • 16.4.3.4 High rates of taxation
        • 16.4.3.5 Identification of discrimination
      • 16.4.4 Products from other Member States
      • 16.4.5 ‘Similar’ products
      • 16.4.6 Objective grounds for differentiation
      • 16.4.7 Taxation affording indirect protection to competing domestic products
    • 16.5 Harmonisation of taxation
    • 16.6 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 17 Free Movement of Goods
    • 17.1 Introduction
    • 17.2 Outline of provisions
      • 17.2.1 Quantitative restrictions
      • 17.2.2 State monopolies
    • 17.3 Whose actions are caught?
      • 17.3.1 Application to the institutions
      • 17.3.2 Public bodies
      • 17.3.3 Horizontal direct effect
    • 17.4 Types of act caught by Articles 34 and 35 TFEU
    • 17.5 Prohibition on quantitative restrictions (Article 34 TFEU)
    • 17.6 Prohibition on measures having equivalent effect to quantitative restrictions (Article 34 TFEU)
      • 17.6.1 Dassonville and the early years
        • 17.6.1.1 Reverse discrimination
        • 17.6.1.2 Pricing rules
      • 17.6.2 Indistinctly applicable measures: Cassis de Dijon
        • 17.6.2.1 Rule of reas
        • 17.6.2.2 Mutual recognition
        • 17.6.2.3 Post-Cassis de Dijon application
      • 17.6.3 ‘Over-extension’ of Article 34 TFEU
      • 17.6.4 Keck and Mithouard
      • 17.6.5 Weaknesses of the Keck approach
      • 17.6.6 Meaning of ‘selling arrangement’
      • 17.6.7 Non-discrimination in Keck
      • 17.6.8 Other categories of trading rule: ‘use rules’
      • 17.6.9 Alternative solutions
        • 17.6.9.1 De minimis
        • 17.6.9.2 Remoteness
    • 17.7 Prohibition, as between Member States, of quantitative restrictions on exports and of all measures having equivalent effect (Article 35 TFEU)
    • 17.8 State monopolies (Article 37 TFEU)
      • 17.8.1 Meaning of ‘monopoly’
      • 17.8.2 Prohibition on discrimination on grounds of nationality
    • 17.9 Relationship with other Treaty provisions
      • 17.9.1 Article 34 TFEU
      • 17.9.2 Other provisions
    • 17.10 Derogation from the free movement of goods
      • 17.10.1 Relationship with the ‘rule of reason’ under Cassis de Dijon
    • 17.11 Proportionality and disguised restriction on trade
    • 17.12 Grounds for derogation under Article 36 TFEU
      • 17.12.1 Public morality
      • 17.12.2 Public policy
      • 17.12.3 Public security
      • 17.12.4 Protection of the health and life of humans, animals and plants
      • 17.12.5 Protection of national treasures possessing artistic, historic or archaeological value
      • 17.12.6 Protection of industrial and commercial property
    • 17.13 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 18 Free Movement of Payments and Capital
    • 18.1 Introduction
    • 18.2 Outline of provisions relating to the free movement of capital
    • 18.3 Scope of the free movement of capital
      • 18.3.1 Who can rely on the free movement of capital?
      • 18.3.2 Direct effect
      • 18.3.3 Types of act caught
      • 18.3.4 Meaning of capital
      • 18.3.5 Test for application of free movement of capital
    • 18.4 Exceptions to the free movement of capital
      • 18.4.1 Express Treaty derogation
        • 18.4.1.1 National taxation systems
        • 18.4.1.2 Fiscal supervision
        • 18.4.1.3 Public policy and public security
      • 18.4.2 Interpreting the derogations
      • 18.4.3 Non-euro Member States
      • 18.4.4 Rule of reason?
    • 18.5 Relationship with other freedoms
    • 18.6 Power to legislate in the field of free movement of capital
    • 18.7 Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)
    • 18.8 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 19 Citizenship: Rights of Free Movement and Residence
    • 19.1 Introduction
    • 19.2 Overview
      • 19.2.1 Citizenship: Article 21 TFEU
      • 19.2.2 Workers: Article 45 TFEU
      • 19.2.3 Establishment: Article 49 TFEU
      • 19.2.4 Services: Article 56 TFEU
      • 19.2.5 Implementing legislation
    • 19.3 Enforcement
    • 19.4 Personal scope: who benefits?
      • 19.4.1 General
      • 19.4.2 Nationality
      • 19.4.3 Companies
      • 19.4.4 Migration and the internal situation
        • 19.4.4.1 Economic rights
        • 19.4.4.2 Citizenship
        • 19.4.4.3 Companies
      • 19.4.5 Is migration status indefinite?
      • 19.4.6 Meaning of ‘worker’ for Article 45 TFEU
        • 19.4.6.1 The position of students
      • 19.4.7 Meaning of establishment for Article 49 TFEU
        • 19.4.7.1 General
        • 19.4.7.2 Elements of establishment
      • 19.4.8 Meaning of services for Article 56 TFEU (ex Article 49 EC)
        • 19.4.8.1 General
        • 19.4.8.2 Types of activity caught
      • 19.4.9 Distinction between the provisions
      • 19.4.10 Families
        • 19.4.10.1 ‘Spouse’ and ‘partner’
        • 19.4.10.2 Dependants and descendants
        • 19.4.10.3 Return to the home Member State
    • 19.5 Material scope: rights of access of the host Member State (CRD)
      • 19.5.1 Rights of entry
        • 19.5.1.1 TCN family members
      • 19.5.2 Right of residence
        • 19.5.2.1 Temporary residence
        • 19.5.2.2 Settled residence
        • 19.5.2.3 Permanent residence
      • 19.5.3 Formalities
    • 19.6 Social rights
      • 19.6.1 Economic migrants
        • 19.6.1.1 Equality of treatment Article 45(2) TFEU and Regulation 492/2011
          • 19.6.1.1.1 Social advantages
          • 19.6.1.1.2 Continuing rights
          • 19.6.1.1.3 Tax advantages
          • 19.6.1.1.4 Access to training in vocational schools and retraining centres
          • 19.6.1.1.5 Housing
          • 19.6.1.1.6 The rights of workers’ families
          • 19.6.1.1.7 Children: Access to educational apprenticeship or vocational training courses
          • 19.6.1.1.8 Article 45 and workers’ rights
        • 19.6.1.2 Establishment
        • 19.6.1.3 Services
      • 19.6.2 Social security
      • 19.6.3 Citizenship
      • 19.6.4 Equality of treatment
        • 19.6.4.1 Martinez Sala
        • 19.6.4.2 Citizens’ Rights Directive (CRD)
        • 19.6.4.3 Welfare benefits
        • 19.6.4.4 Jobseekers
        • 19.6.4.5 Accessing education and training
        • 19.6.4.6 Student finance
        • 19.6.4.7 Rights against state of origin
    • 19.7 Limitations
      • 19.7.1 Scope of provisions
      • 19.7.2 Who benefits?
      • 19.7.3 Relationship with Treaty provisions
      • 19.7.4 Enforcement
      • 19.7.5 Substantive grounds for derogation
        • 19.7.5.1 Public policy
        • 19.7.5.2 Public security
        • 19.7.5.3 Public health
      • 19.7.6 Personal conduct
      • 19.7.7 Types of measure
        • 19.7.7.1 Partial restrictions
        • 19.7.7.2 Expulsion
      • 19.7.8 Procedural rights
    • 19.8 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 20 Economic Rights: Workers, Establishment and Services
    • 20.1 Introduction
    • 20.2 Overview and Treaty provisions
      • 20.2.1 The free movement of workers
      • 20.2.2 Freedom of establishment
      • 20.2.3 The freedom to provide services
      • 20.2.4 Public service
    • 20.3 Right of access to the market
      • 20.3.1 Workers
      • 20.3.2 Establishment
      • 20.3.3 Services
      • 20.3.4 Linguistic concerns
      • 20.3.5 Public service
    • 20.4 Test for the application of Articles 45, 49 and 56 TFEU
      • 20.4.1 Discrimination
      • 20.4.2 Beyond discrimination
      • 20.4.3 Establishment
      • 20.4.4 Workers
      • 20.4.5 Distinctions between different kinds of rule?
      • 20.4.6 ‘Exports’
      • 20.4.7 A common approach, a consistent approach?
    • 20.5 Limitations on the application of Articles 45, 49 and 56 TFEU
    • 20.6 A rule of reason?
    • 20.7 Harmonisation
      • 20.7.1 Mutual recognition and the home-country principle
      • 20.7.2 Relationship between directives and other provisions
    • 20.8 The Services Directive (Directive 2006/123)
      • 20.8.1 Scope of the Directive
      • 20.8.2 Administration
      • 20.8.3 Freedom of establishment
      • 20.8.4 The cross-border provision of services
      • 20.8.5 Provisions to ensure quality of service
      • 20.8.6 Administrative cooperation
    • 20.9 Professional qualifications
      • 20.9.1 Jurisprudence of the CJ
      • 20.9.2 The directives
        • 20.9.2.1 Rules for lawyers
        • 20.9.2.2 Unregulated activities
          • 20.9.2.2.1 Third-country qualifications
    • 20.10 Establishment, services and companies
      • 20.10.1 General
      • 20.10.2 Regulatory competition
      • 20.10.3 Taxation: are anti-avoidance measures permissible?
      • 20.10.4 Regulatory competition: the position of services—home-country control and abuse
    • 20.11 Recipients of services
      • 20.11.1 General
      • 20.11.2 Non-discrimination and Union competence
        • 20.11.2.1 Fees and access to courses
        • 20.11.2.2 Scholarships and grants
      • 20.11.3 Scope of services: corollary to the right to receive
      • 20.11.4 Remuneration and publicly funded services: where lies the dividing line?
        • 20.11.4.1 Education
        • 20.11.4.2 Healthcare services
      • 20.11.5 Legislation
        • 20.11.5.1 The Patients’ Directive
    • 20.12 Exceptions
      • 20.12.1 Non-discriminatory measures
      • 20.12.2 A rule of reason?
        • 20.12.2.1 Boundary between discriminatory measures and those that apply without distinction
    • 20.13 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 21 The Area of Freedom, Security and Justice: EU Justice and Home Affairs Law and Policy
    • 21.1 Introduction
    • 21.2 Historical development
      • 21.2.1 From JHA to AFSJ
      • 21.2.2 The acquisition by the European Union of powers over home affairs
      • 21.2.3 The need to respect fundamental rights
    • 21.3 The migration of TCNs and the need for EU powers
    • 21.4 Economic migration and integration
      • 21.4.1 Schengen
      • 21.4.2 Integration of long-term residents
      • 21.4.3 The Long-term Residents Directive
      • 21.4.4 The Family Reunification Directive
      • 21.4.5 Students Directive
      • 21.4.6 Blue Card Directive
      • 21.4.7 Other EU immigration measures
    • 21.5 The regulation of asylum: harmonisation or exclusion?
    • 21.6 Irregular migration and policing the EU border
      • 21.6.1 People smuggling and people trafficking
      • 21.6.2 The Returns Directive
    • 21.7 EU criminal justice policy
      • 21.7.1 Criminal liability arising ancillary to legislation passed under non-AFSJ provisions
      • 21.7.2 AFSJ post-Lisbon
    • 21.8 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 22 Discrimination
    • 22.1 Introduction
    • 22.2 Historical development
      • 22.2.1 Phase 1
      • 22.2.2 Phase 2
      • 22.2.3 Phase 3
    • 22.3 TFEU provisions
    • 22.4 Legislation in force
      • 22.4.1 Common provisions
      • 22.4.2 Minimum standards
      • 22.4.3 Direct and indirect discrimination
      • 22.4.4 Enforcement
      • 22.4.5 Burden of proof
    • 22.5 Overview of provisions on gender equality
      • 22.5.1 Pay
      • 22.5.2 Sources of pay
        • 22.5.2.1 Collective agreements
        • 22.5.2.2 A single source
        • 22.5.2.3 Ex gratia payments
        • 22.5.2.4 Statutory payments
        • 22.5.2.5 Payments resulting from a judicial decision
        • 22.5.2.6 Access to pay
    • 22.6 Pensions
    • 22.7 Meaning of ‘worker’
    • 22.8 Equal pay for equal work
      • 22.8.1 Job classification schemes
      • 22.8.2 Contemporaneity
      • 22.8.3 Equal work
    • 22.9 Discrimination
      • 22.9.1 Direct discrimination
      • 22.9.2 Indirect discrimination
      • 22.9.3 Time rates/piecework
      • 22.9.4 Computation of pay
    • 22.10 Grounds of discrimination: limited to sex
    • 22.11 Objective justification
      • 22.11.1 General criteria
      • 22.11.2 Justifications based on economic factors, job performance and market forces
      • 22.11.3 Administrative convenience
      • 22.11.4 Social-policy objectives
    • 22.12 Recast Directive: Article 14(2): genuine and determining occupational requirement
      • 22.12.1 Positive discrimination
    • 22.13 Scope of the Recast Directive
      • 22.13.1 Access to employment
        • 22.13.1.1 Vocational training
        • 22.13.1.2 Employment conditions including dismissal
      • 22.13.2 Direct and indirect discrimination
      • 22.13.3 Derogation from the equal treatment principle
        • 22.13.3.1 Sex as a determining factor
        • 22.13.3.2 Pregnancy and maternity
        • 22.13.3.3 Enforcement
    • 22.14 Directive 2010/41: equal treatment in self-employment
    • 22.15 Directive 2004/113: equal treatment of men and women in access to goods and services
    • 22.16 Directive 2000/43: equal treatment irrespective of racial or ethnic origin
      • 22.16.1 Minimum levels of protection
      • 22.16.2 Scope of application
      • 22.16.3 Discrimination
      • 22.16.4 Exceptions
        • 22.16.4.1 Nationality
        • 22.16.4.2 Genuine and determining occupational requirement
        • 22.16.4.3 Positive measures
      • 22.16.5 Enforcement and remedies
    • 22.17 Directive 2000/78: equal treatment in employment and occupation
      • 22.17.1 Key concepts
        • 22.17.1.1 Religion or belief
        • 22.17.1.2 Disability
        • 22.17.1.3 Age
        • 22.17.1.4 Sexual orientation
      • 22.17.2 Scope of the Directive
      • 22.17.3 Reasonable accommodation
      • 22.17.4 Minimum requirements
      • 22.17.5 Discrimination
        • 22.17.5.1 Age discrimination
        • 22.17.5.2 Sexual orientation
        • 22.17.5.3 Disability discrimination
        • 22.17.5.4 Religious discrimination
      • 22.17.6 Exceptions and derogations
      • 22.17.7 Compulsory retirement
      • 22.17.8 Enforcement
    • 22.18 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 23 EU Competition Law
    • 23.1 Introduction
    • 23.2 The general scheme
      • 23.2.1 Elements of an infringement
      • 23.2.2 Agreements between undertakings, decisions by associations of undertakings and concerted practices
        • 23.2.2.1 Undertakings
        • 23.2.2.2 Agreements
        • 23.2.2.3 Decisions by associations of undertakings
        • 23.2.2.4 Concerted practices
        • 23.2.2.5 Unilateral conduct
        • 23.2.2.6 Public authorities
      • 23.2.3 Field of application of Article 101(1) TFEU
        • 23.2.3.1 Group companies
        • 23.2.3.2 Undertakings situated outside the European Union
      • 23.2.4 ‘Which may affect trade between Member States’
      • 23.2.5 Agreements within a Member State
      • 23.2.6 The network effect: combined effect of similar agreements
      • 23.2.7 Actual or potential effect
      • 23.2.8 ‘Which have as their object or effect the prevention, restriction or distortion of competition within the common market’
        • 23.2.8.1 ‘Object or effect’
          • The de minimis principle
      • 23.2.9 Consequences if agreement is within Article 101(1)
      • 23.2.10 Article 101(3): exemption
        • 23.2.10.1 It must contribute to improving the production or distribution of goods or to promoting technical or economic progress
          • Production
          • Distribution
          • Technical progress
          • Economic progress
        • 23.2.10.2 The agreement must allow consumers a fair share in the resulting benefit
        • 23.2.10.3 The agreement must not impose on the undertakings concerned restrictions which are not indispensable
        • 23.2.10.4 The agreement must not afford such undertakings the possibility of eliminating competition in respect of a substantial part of the products in question
      • 23.2.11 Block exemptions
        • 23.2.11.1 Background
      • 23.2.12 Horizontal agreements
        • 23.2.12.1 Price fixing
        • 23.2.12.2 Market sharing
        • 23.2.12.3 Restrictions on output
        • 23.2.12.4 Collusive tendering
        • 23.2.12.5 Cooperation agreements
        • 23.2.12.6 Vertical agreements
        • 23.2.12.7 Commercial agents
        • 23.2.12.8 Independent distributors
          • Types of distribution arrangements
        • 23.2.12.9 Franchise agreements
        • 23.2.12.10 The Vertical Agreements Block Exemption Regulations
          • Scope
          • Key concepts
          • The exemption
          • Hard-core restrictions
          • Excluded restrictions
          • Withdrawal/disapplication of the block exemption
        • 23.2.12.11 Ancillary restrictions
      • 23.2.13 Conclusions on Article 101 TFEU
    • 23.3 Abuse of a dominant position
      • 23.3.1 Overview of prohibition
      • 23.3.2 Undertakings
      • 23.3.3 Joint dominance
      • 23.3.4 The principle of dominance
        • 23.3.4.1 The relevant product market (RPM)
          • End products
          • Raw materials
          • Size of relevant product market
        • 23.3.4.2 The relevant geographical market (RGM)
          • Determining the RGM
        • 23.3.4.3 The temporal market
        • 23.3.4.4 Dominance in fact
          • Market share
          • The length of time during which a firm has held its position in the RPM
          • Financial and technological resources
          • Access to raw materials and outlets
          • Behaviour
          • Barriers to entry
          • Associated markets
      • 23.3.5 Abuse
        • 23.3.5.1 Exploitative abuses
          • Unfair prices
          • Unfair trading conditions
          • Discriminatory treatment
        • 23.3.5.2 Exclusionary abuse
          • Tying and bundling
          • Predatory pricing
          • Refusal to supply
          • An ‘essential facilities’ doctrine?
          • Exclusive reservation of activities
          • Import and export bans
          • Margin squeeze
      • 23.3.6 Trade between Member States
      • 23.3.7 Relationship with Article 106(2) TFEU
        • 23.3.7.1 When will Article 102 not apply?
        • 23.3.7.2 Interests of the Union
    • 23.4 Enforcement of Articles 101 and 102
    • 23.5 Private enforcement
    • 23.6 Mergers and concentrations
      • 23.6.1 Background: from Articles 101 and 102 to the Merger Regulation
      • 23.6.2 The Merger Regulation
    • 23.7 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
  • 24 Brexit
    • 24.1 Introduction
    • 24.2 Article 50 TEU: notifying withdrawal
    • 24.3 Article 50: negotiating withdrawal
    • 24.4 The withdrawal agreement
    • 24.5 The Trade and Cooperation Agreement
    • 24.6 Conclusions
    • Self-test questions
    • Further reading
• Further Reading
• Index
• List of Illustrations
• List of Tables
• Images
  • 3 Scope of the EU Treaty: Laws and Lawmaking
  • 5 Principles of Direct Applicability and Direct Effects
  • 16 Customs Union
  • 17 Free Movement of Goods
  • 19 Citizenship: Rights of Free Movement and Residence
  • 20 Economic Rights: Workers, Establishment and Services

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