Efnisyfirlit

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• Preface
  • Faculty resources
• Part One: Principles of Molecular Structure and Function
  • Chapter 1: Introduction to Biomolecules
    • Water is the solvent of life
    • Water contains hydronium ions and hydroxyl ions
    • Ionizable groups are characterized by their pk values
    • The blood pH is tightly regulated
    • Acidosis and alkalosis are common in clinical practice
    • Bonds are formed by reactions between functional groups
    • Isomeric forms are common in biomolecules
    • Properties of biomolecules are determined by their noncovalent interactions
    • Triglycerides consist of fatty acids and glycerol
    • Monosaccharides are polyalcohols with a keto group or an aldehyde group
    • Monosaccharides form ring structures
    • Complex carbohydrates are formed by glycosidic bonds
    • Polypeptides are formed from amino acids
    • Nucleic acids are formed from nucleotides
    • Most biomolecules are polymers
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 2: Introduction to Protein Structure
    • Amino acids are zwitterions
    • Amino acid side chains form many noncovalent interactions
    • Peptide bonds and disulfide bonds form the primary structure of proteins
    • Proteins can fold themselves into many shapes
    • α-helix and β-pleated sheet are the most common secondary structures in proteins
    • Globular proteins have a hydrophobic core
    • Proteins lose their biological activities when their higher-order structure is destroyed
    • The solubility of proteins depends on pH and salt concentration
    • Proteins absorb ultraviolet radiation
    • Proteins can be separated by their charge or their molecular weight
    • Abnormal protein aggregates can cause disease
    • Neurodegenerative diseases are caused by protein aggregates
    • Protein misfolding can be contagious
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 3: Oxygen-Binding Proteins: Hemoglobin and Myoglobin
    • The heme group is the oxygen-binding site of hemoglobin and myoglobin
    • Myoglobin is a tightly packed globular protein
    • Red blood cells are specialized for oxygen transport
    • The hemoglobins are tetrameric proteins
    • Oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin have different quaternary structures
    • Oxygen binding to hemoglobin is cooperative
    • 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate is a negative allosteric effector of oxygen binding to hemoglobin
    • Fetal hemoglobin has a higher oxygen-binding affinity than does adult hemoglobin
    • The Bohr effect facilitates oxygen delivery
    • Most carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 4: Enzymatic Reactions
    • The equilibrium constant describes the equilibrium of the reaction
    • The free energy change is the driving force for chemical reactions
    • The standard free energy change determines the equilibrium
    • Enzymes are both powerful and selective
    • The substrate must bind to its enzyme before the reaction can proceed
    • Rate constants are useful for describing reaction rates
    • Enzymes decrease the free energy of activation
    • Many enzymatic reactions can be described by michaelis-menten kinetics
    • Km and vmax can be determined graphically
    • Substrate half-life can be determined for first-order but not zero-order reactions
    • Kcat/km predicts the enzyme activity at low substrate concentration
    • Allosteric enzymes do not conform to michaelis-menten kinetics
    • Enzyme activity depends on temperature and pH
    • Different types of reversible enzyme inhibition can be distinguished kinetically
    • Covalent modification can inhibit enzymes irreversibly
    • Enzymes stabilize the transition state
    • Chymotrypsin forms a transient covalent bond during catalysis
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 5: Coenzymes
    • Enzymes are classified according to their reaction type
    • Adenosine triphosphate has two energy-rich bonds
    • ATP donates phosphate in phosphorylation reactions
    • ATP hydrolysis drives endergonic reactions
    • Cells always try to maintain a high energy charge
    • Dehydrogenase reactions require specialized coenzymes
    • Coenzyme a activates organic acids
    • S-adenosyl methionine donates methyl groups
    • Many enzymes require a metal ion
    • Summary
    • Questions
• Part Two: Genetic Information: DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
  • Chapter 6: DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
    • All living organisms use DNA as their genetic databank
    • DNA contains four bases
    • DNA forms a double helix
    • DNA can be denatured
    • DNA is supercoiled
    • DNA replication is semiconservative
    • DNA is synthesized by DNA polymerases
    • DNA polymerases have exonuclease activities
    • Unwinding proteins present a single-stranded template to the DNA polymerases
    • One of the new DNA strands is synthesized discontinuously
    • RNA plays key roles in gene expression
    • The σ subunit recognizes promoters
    • DNA is faithfully copied into RNA
    • Some RNAs are chemically modified after transcription
    • The genetic code defines the structural relationship between mRNA and polypeptide
    • Transfer RNA is the adapter molecule in protein synthesis
    • Amino acids are activated by an ester bond with the 3′ terminus of the tRNA
    • Many transfer RNAs recognize more than one codon
    • Ribosomes are the workbenches for protein synthesis
    • The initiation complex brings together ribosome, messenger RNA, and initiator tRNA
    • Polypeptides grow stepwise from the amino terminus to the carboxyl terminus
    • Protein synthesis is energetically expensive
    • Gene expression is tightly regulated
    • A repressor protein regulates transcription of the lac operon in E. coli
    • Anabolic operons are repressed by the end product of the pathway
    • Glucose regulates the transcription of many catabolic operons
    • Transcriptional regulation depends on DNA-binding proteins
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 7: The Human Genome
    • Chromatin consists of DNA and histones
    • The nucleosome is the structural unit of chromatin
    • Covalent histone modifications regulate DNA replication and transcription
    • DNA methylation silences genes
    • All eukaryotic chromosomes have a centromere, telomeres, and replication origins
    • Telomerase is required (but not sufficient) for immortality
    • Eukaryotic DNA replication requires three DNA polymerases
    • Most human DNA does not code for proteins
    • Gene families originate by gene duplication
    • The genome contains many tandem repeats
    • Some DNA sequences are copies of functional RNAs
    • Many repetitive DNA sequences are (or were) mobile
    • L1 elements encode a reverse transcriptase
    • ALU sequences spread with the help of L1 reverse transcriptase
    • Mobile elements are dangerous
    • Humans have approximately 20,000 genes
    • Transcriptional initiation requires general transcription factors
    • Genes are surrounded by regulatory sites
    • Gene expression is regulated by DNA-binding proteins
    • Long noncoding RNAs play roles in gene expression
    • mRNA processing starts during transcription
    • Translational initiation requires many initiation factors
    • mRNA processing and translation are often regulated
    • Small RNA molecules inhibit gene expression
    • Mitochondria have their own DNA
    • Human genomes are very diverse
    • Human genomes have many low-frequency copy number variations
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 8: Protein Targeting and Proteostasis
    • A signal sequence directs polypeptides to the endoplasmic reticulum
    • Glycoproteins are processed in the secretory pathway
    • The endocytic pathway brings proteins into the cell
    • Lysosomes are organelles of intracellular digestion
    • Autophagy recycles cellular proteins and organelles
    • Poorly folded proteins are either repaired or destroyed
    • Ubiquitin marks proteins for destruction
    • The proteostatic system protects cells from abnormal proteins
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 9: Introduction to Genetic Diseases
    • Four types of genetic disease
    • Mutations occur in the germline and in somatic cells
    • Mutations are an important cause of poor health
    • Small mutations lead to abnormal proteins
    • Most mutations are caused by replication errors
    • Mutations can be induced by radiation and chemicals
    • Mismatch repair corrects replication errors
    • Missing bases and abnormal bases need to be replaced
    • Nucleotide excision repair removes bulky lesions
    • Repair of dna double-strand breaks is difficult
    • Hemoglobin genes form two gene clusters
    • Many point mutations in hemoglobin genes are known
    • Sickle cell disease is caused by a point mutation in the β-chain gene
    • SA heterozygotes are protected from tropical malaria
    • α-thalassemia is most often caused by large deletions
    • Many different mutations can cause β-thalassemia
    • Fetal hemoglobin protects from the effects of β-thalassemia and sickle cell disease
    • Polygenic diseases have multiple genetic risk factors
    • Genetic risk factors are discovered in genome-wide association studies
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 10: Viruses
    • Viruses can replicate only in a host cell
    • Bacteriophage T4 destroys its host cell
    • DNA viruses substitute their own DNA for the host cell DNA
    • λ phage can integrate its DNA into the host cell chromosome
    • RNA viruses require an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase
    • Retroviruses replicate through a DNA intermediate
    • Plasmids are small “accessory chromosomes” or “symbiotic viruses” of bacteria
    • Bacteria can exchange genes by transformation and transduction
    • Jumping genes can change their position in the genome
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 11: DNA Technology
    • Restriction endonucleases cut large DNA molecules into smaller fragments
    • Large probes are used to detect copy number variations
    • Small probes are used to detect point mutations
    • Southern blotting determines the size of restriction fragments
    • DNA can be amplified with the polymerase chain reaction
    • PCR is used for preimplantation genetic diagnosis
    • Allelic heterogeneity is the greatest challenge for molecular genetic diagnosis
    • Normal polymorphisms are used as genetic markers
    • Tandem repeats are used for DNA fingerprinting
    • DNA microarrays can be used for genetic screening
    • DNA microarrays are used for the study of gene expression
    • DNA is sequenced by controlled chain termination
    • Massively parallel sequencing permits cost-efficient whole-genome genetic diagnosis
    • Gene therapy targets somatic cells
    • Viruses are used as vectors for gene therapy
    • Retroviruses can splice a transgene into the cell’s genome
    • Genome editing is based on the making and healing of DNA double strand breaks
    • Designer nucleases are used for genome editing
    • Antisense oligonucleotides can block the expression of rogue genes
    • Genes can be altered in animals
    • Tissue-specific gene expression can be engineered into animals
    • Human germline genome editing is technically possible
    • Summary
    • Questions
• Part Three: Cell and Tissue Structure
  • Chapter 12: Biological Membranes
    • Membranes consist of lipid and protein
    • Phosphoglycerides are the most abundant membrane lipids
    • Most sphingolipids are glycolipids
    • Cholesterol is the most hydrophobic membrane lipid
    • Membrane lipids form a bilayer
    • The lipid bilayer is a two-dimensional fluid
    • The lipid bilayer is a diffusion barrier
    • Membranes contain integral and peripheral membrane proteins
    • Membranes are asymmetrical
    • Membranes are fragile
    • Membrane proteins carry solutes across the lipid bilayer
    • Transport against an electrochemical gradient requires metabolic energy
    • Active transport consumes ATP
    • Sodium cotransport brings molecules into the cell
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 13: The Cytoskeleton
    • The erythrocyte membrane is reinforced by a spectrin network
    • Keratins give strength to epithelia
    • Actin filaments are formed from globular subunits
    • Striated muscle contains thick and thin filaments
    • Myosin is a two-headed molecule with ATPase activity
    • Muscle contraction requires calcium and ATP
    • The cytoskeleton of skeletal muscle is linked to the extracellular matrix
    • Microtubules consist of tubulin
    • Eukaryotic cilia and flagella contain a 9 + 2 array of microtubules
    • Cells form specialized junctions with other cells and with the extracellular matrix
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 14: The Extracellular Matrix
    • Collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body
    • The tropocollagen molecule forms a long triple helix
    • Collagen fibrils are staggered arrays of tropocollagen molecules
    • Collagen is subject to extensive posttranslational processing
    • Collagen metabolism is altered in aging and disease
    • Many genetic defects of collagen structure and biosynthesis are known
    • Elastic fibers contain elastin and fibrillin
    • The amorphous ground substance contains hyaluronic acid
    • Sulfated glycosaminoglycans are covalently bound to core proteins
    • Cartilage contains large proteoglycan aggregates
    • Proteoglycans are synthesized in the er and degraded in lysosomes
    • Mucopolysaccharidoses are caused by deficiency of glycosaminoglycan-degrading enzymes
    • Bone consists of calcium phosphates in a collagenous matrix
    • Basement membranes contain type iv collagen, laminin, and heparan sulfate proteoglycans
    • Fibronectin glues cells and collagen fibers together
    • Summary
    • Questions
• Part Four: Molecular Physiology
  • Chapter 15: Extracellular Messengers
    • Steroid hormones are made from cholesterol
    • Progestins are the biosynthetic precursors of all other steroid hormones
    • Thyroid hormones are synthesized from protein-bound tyrosine
    • T4 becomes activated to T3 in the target tissues
    • Both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism are common disorders
    • Insulin is released together with the C-peptide
    • Proopiomelanocortin forms several active products
    • Angiotensin is formed from circulating angiotensinogen
    • Immunoassays are used for determination of hormone levels
    • Catecholamines are synthesized from tyrosine
    • Indoleamines are synthesized from tryptophan
    • Histamine is produced by mast cells and basophils
    • Neurotransmitters are released at synapses
    • Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter of the neuromuscular junction
    • There are many neurotransmitters
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 16: Intracellular Messengers
    • Receptor-hormone interactions are noncovalent, reversible, and saturable
    • Many neurotransmitter receptors are ion channels
    • Steroid and thyroid hormones bind to transcription factors
    • Seven-transmembrane receptors are coupled to G proteins
    • Adenylate cyclase is regulated by G proteins
    • Hormones can both activate and inhibit the camp cascade
    • Cytoplasmic calcium is an important intracellular signal
    • Phospholipase C generates two second messengers
    • Both camp and calcium regulate gene transcription
    • Muscle contraction and exocytosis are triggered by calcium
    • Atrial natriuretic factor acts through a membrane-bound guanylate cyclase
    • Nitric oxide stimulates a soluble guanylate cyclase
    • cGMP is a second messenger in retinal rod cells
    • Receptors for insulin and growth factors are tyrosine-specific protein kinases
    • Growth factors and insulin trigger multiple signaling cascades
    • Cytokine receptors use the JAK-STAT pathway
    • Many receptors become desensitized after overstimulation
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 17: Plasma Proteins
    • Plasma proteins are both synthesized and destroyed in the liver
    • Albumin prevents edema
    • Albumin binds many small molecules
    • Some plasma proteins are specialized carriers of small molecules
    • Deficiency of α1-antitrypsin causes lung emphysema
    • Levels of plasma proteins are affected by many diseases
    • Blood components are used for transfusions
    • Blood clotting must be tightly controlled
    • Platelets adhere to exposed subendothelial tissue
    • Insoluble fibrin is formed from soluble fibrinogen
    • Thrombin is derived from prothrombin
    • Factor X can be activated by the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways
    • Negative controls are necessary to prevent thrombosis
    • Plasmin degrades the fibrin clot
    • Heparin and vitamin K antagonists are used as anticoagulants
    • Clotting factor deficiencies cause abnormal bleeding
    • Tissue damage causes release of cellular enzymes into blood
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 18: Defense Mechanisms
    • Lipophilic xenobiotics are metabolized to water-soluble products
    • Cytochrome P-450 is involved in phase I metabolism
    • Phase II metabolism makes xenobiotics water-soluble for excretion
    • Phase III metabolism excretes xenobiotic metabolites
    • Drug-metabolizing enzymes are inducible
    • The innate immune system uses pattern recognition receptors
    • Infection triggers inflammation
    • Lymphocytes possess antigen receptors
    • B Lymphocytes produce immunoglobulins
    • Antibodies consist of two light chains and two heavy chains
    • Different immunoglobulin classes have different properties
    • Adaptive immune responses are based on clonal selection
    • Immunoglobulin genes are rearranged during B-cell development
    • The T-cell receptor recruits cytosolic tyrosine protein kinases
    • Mediators of inflammation are produced from arachidonic acid
    • Prostaglandins are synthesized in all tissues
    • Prostanoids participate in many physiological processes
    • Leukotrienes are produced by the lipoxygenase pathway
    • Antiinflammatory drugs inhibit the synthesis of eicosanoids
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 19: Cellular Growth Control and Cancer
    • The cell cycle is controlled at checkpoints
    • Cells can be grown in culture
    • Cyclins play key roles in cell cycle control
    • Retinoblastoma protein guards the G1 checkpoint
    • Cell proliferation is triggered by mitogens
    • Mitogens regulate gene expression
    • Cells can commit suicide
    • Cancers are monoclonal in origin
    • Cancer is caused by activation of growth-promoting genes and inactivation of growth-inhibiting genes
    • Some retroviruses contain an oncogene
    • Retroviruses can cause cancer by inserting themselves next to a cellular proto-oncogene
    • Many oncogenes code for components of mitogenic signaling cascades
    • Cancer susceptibility syndromes are caused by inherited mutations in tumor suppressor genes
    • Many tumor suppressor genes are known
    • Components of the cell cycle machinery are abnormal in most cancers
    • DNA Damage causes either growth arrest or apoptosis
    • Most spontaneous cancers are defective in p53 action
    • The PI3K/protein kinase B pathway is activated in many cancers
    • The products of some viral oncogenes neutralize the products of cellular tumor suppressor genes
    • Tumors become more malignant through darwinian selection
    • Intestinal polyps are benign lesions
    • Intestinal polyps can evolve into colon cancer
    • Summary
    • Questions
• Part Five: Metabolism
  • Chapter 20: Digestive Enzymes
    • Saliva contains α-amylase and lysozyme
    • Protein and fat digestion start in the stomach
    • The pancreas is a factory for digestive enzymes
    • Fat digestion requires bile salts
    • Some digestive enzymes are anchored to the surface of the microvilli
    • Poorly digestible nutrients cause flatulence
    • Many digestive enzymes are released as inactive precursors
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 21: Introduction to Metabolic Pathways
    • Alternative substrates can be oxidized in the body
    • Metabolic processes are compartmentalized
    • Free energy changes in metabolic pathways are additive
    • Most metabolic pathways are regulated
    • Feedback inhibition and feedforward stimulation are the most important regulatory principles
    • Metabolism is regulated to ensure homeostasis
    • Inherited enzyme deficiencies cause metabolic diseases
    • Vitamin deficiencies, toxins, and endocrine disorders can disrupt metabolic pathways
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 22: Glycolysis, Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation
    • Glucose uptake into the cells is regulated
    • Glucose degradation begins in the cytoplasm and ends in the mitochondria
    • Glycolysis begins with ATP-dependent phosphorylations
    • Most glycolytic intermediates have three carbons
    • Phosphofructokinase is the most important regulated enzyme of glycolysis
    • Lactate is produced under anaerobic conditions
    • Pyruvate is decarboxylated to acetyl-CoA in the mitochondria
    • The TCA cycle produces two molecules of carbon dioxide for each acetyl residue
    • Reduced coenzymes are the most important products of the TCA cycle
    • Oxidative pathways are regulated by energy charge and [NADH]/[NAD+] ratio
    • The TCA cycle provides a pool of metabolic intermediates
    • Antiporters transport metabolites across the inner mitochondrial membrane
    • The respiratory chain channels electrons from NADH and FADH2 to molecular oxygen
    • The standard reduction potential is the tendency to donate electrons
    • The respiratory chain contains flavoproteins, iron-sulfur proteins, cytochromes, ubiquinone, and protein-bound copper
    • The respiratory chain contains large multiprotein complexes
    • The respiratory chain creates a proton gradient
    • The proton gradient drives ATP synthesis
    • The efficiency of glucose oxidation is close to 40%
    • Oxidative phosphorylation is limited by the supply of ADP
    • Brown adipose tissue contains an uncoupling protein
    • Mutations in mitochondrial DNA can cause disease
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 23: Oxygen Deficiency and Oxygen Toxicity
    • Ischemia leads to infarction
    • Oxidative phosphorylation is inhibited by many poisons
    • Hypoxia inducible factor adjusts cell metabolism to hypoxia
    • Reactive oxygen derivatives are formed during oxidative metabolism
    • The respiratory chain is a major source of superoxide
    • Cells have specialized enzymes to destroy reactive oxygen species
    • Free radical formation is affected by energy supply and energy consumption
    • Some vitamins and phytochemicals can scavEnge free radicals
    • The NRF2 transcription factor coordinates defenses against reactive oxygen species
    • Phagocytic cells use reactive oxygen species for intracellular killing
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 24: Carbohydrate Metabolism
    • An adequate blood glucose level must be maintained at all times
    • Gluconeogenesis bypasses the three irreversible reactions of glycolysis
    • Fatty acids cannot be converted into glucose
    • Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are regulated by hormones
    • Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are fine tuned by allosteric effectors and hormone-induced enzyme phosphorylations
    • Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate switches the liver from gluconeogenesis to glycolysis
    • Glucokinase is regulated by two regulatory proteins
    • Carbohydrate is stored as glycogen
    • Glycogen is synthesized from glucose
    • Glycogen is degraded by phosphorolytic cleavage
    • Glycogen metabolissm is regulated by hormones and metabolites
    • Glycogen accumulates in several enzyme deficiencies
    • Fructose is channeled into glycolysis/gluconeogenesis
    • Excess fructose is problematic
    • Excess galactose is channeled into the pathways of glucose metabolism
    • The pentose phosphate pathway supplies NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate
    • Fructose is the principal sugar in seminal fluid
    • Amino sugars and sugar acids are made from glucose
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 25: The Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Triglycerides
    • Fatty acids differ in chain length and number of double bonds
    • Chylomicrons transport triglycerides from the intestine to other tissues
    • Adipose tissue is specialized for the storage of triglycerides
    • Fat metabolism in adipose tissue is under hormonal control
    • Fatty acids are transported into the mitochondrion
    • β-Oxidation produces acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH2
    • Special fatty acids require special reactions
    • The liver converts excess fatty acids to ketone bodies
    • Fatty acids are synthesized from acetyl-CoA
    • Acetyl-CoA is shuttled into the cytoplasm as citrate
    • Fatty acid synthesis is regulated by hormones and metabolites
    • AMP-Activated protein kinase adapts metabolic pathways to cellular energy status
    • Most fatty acids can be synthesized from palmitate
    • Fatty acids regulate gene expression
    • Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be oxidized nonenzymatically
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 26: The Metabolism of Membrane Lipids
    • Phosphatidic acid is an intermediate in phosphoglyceride synthesis
    • Phosphoglycerides are remodeled continuously
    • Sphingolipids are synthesized from ceramide
    • Deficiencies of sphingolipid-degrading enzymes cause lipid storage diseases
    • Cholesterol is the least soluble membrane lipid
    • Cholesterol is derived from both endogenous synthesis and the diet
    • Cholesterol biosynthesis is regulated at the level of HMG-CoA reductase
    • Bile acids are synthesized from cholesterol
    • Bile acids are subject to extensive enterohepatic circulation
    • Most gallstones consist of cholesterol
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 27: Lipid Transport
    • Most plasma lipids are components of lipoproteins
    • Lipoproteins have characteristic lipid and protein compositions
    • Dietary lipids are transported by chylomicrons
    • VLDL is a precursor of LDL
    • LDL is removed by receptor-mediated endocytosis
    • Cholesterol regulates its own metabolism
    • HDL is needed for reverse cholesterol transport
    • Lipoproteins can initiate atherosclerosis
    • Lipoproteins respond to diet and lifestyle
    • Hyperlipoproteinemias are grouped into five phenotypes
    • Hyperlipidemias are treated with diet and drugs
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 28: Amino Acid Metabolism
    • Amino acids can be used for gluconeogenesis and ketogenesis
    • The nitrogen balance indicates the net rate of protein synthesis
    • The amino group of amino acids is released as ammonia
    • Ammonia is detoxified to urea
    • Urea is synthesized in the urea cycle
    • Hyperammonemia can be treated with diet and drugs
    • Some amino acids are closely related to common metabolic intermediates
    • Glycine, serine, and threonine are glucogenic
    • Proline, arginine, ornithine, and histidine are degraded to glutamate
    • Methionine and cysteine are metabolically related
    • Valine, leucine, and isoleucine are degraded by transamination and oxidative decarboxylation
    • Phenylalanine and tyrosine are both glucogenic and ketogenic
    • Melanin is synthesized from tyrosine
    • Lysine and tryptophan have lengthy catabolic pathways
    • The liver is the most important organ of amino acid metabolism
    • Glutamine participates in renal acid-base regulation
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 29: Metabolism of Iron and Heme
    • Iron is conserved very efficiently in the body
    • Iron uptake by cells is regulated
    • Dietary iron is absorbed in the duodenum
    • Iron deficiency is the most common micronutrient deficiency worldwide
    • Bone marrow and liver are the most important sites of heme synthesis
    • Heme is synthesized from succinyl-CoA and glycine
    • Porphyrias are caused by deficiencies of heme-synthesizing enzymes
    • Heme is degraded to bilirubin
    • Bilirubin is conjugated and excreted by the liver
    • Elevations of serum bilirubin cause jaundice
    • Many diseases can cause jaundice
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 30: The Metabolism of Purines and Pyrimidines
    • Purine synthesis starts with ribose-5-phosphate
    • Purines are degraded to uric acid
    • Free purine bases can be salvaged
    • Pyrimidines are synthesized from carbamoyl phosphate and aspartate
    • DNA synthesis requires deoxyribonucleotides
    • Many antineoplastic drugs inhibit nucleotide metabolism
    • Uric acid has limited water solubility
    • Hyperuricemia causes gout
    • Abnormalities of purine-metabolizing enzymes can cause gout
    • Gout can be treated with drugs
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 31: Micronutrients
    • Riboflavin is a precursor of flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide
    • Niacin is a precursor of NAD and NADP
    • Thiamine deficiency causes weakness and amnesia
    • Vitamin B6 plays a key role in amino acid metabolism
    • Pantothenic acid is a building block of coenzyme A
    • Biotin is a coenzyme in carboxylation reactions
    • Folic acid deficiency causes megaloblastic anemia
    • Vitamin B12 requires intrinsic factor for its absorption
    • Vitamin C is a water-soluble antioxidant
    • Retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid are the active forms of vitamin A
    • Vitamin D is a prohormone
    • Vitamin E prevents lipid oxidation
    • Many vitamins and phytochemicals are antioxidants
    • Vitamin K is required for blood clotting
    • Zinc is a constituent of many enzymes
    • Copper participates in reactions of molecular oxygen
    • Some trace elements serve very specific functions
    • Summary
    • Questions
  • Chapter 32: Integration of Metabolism
    • Insulin is released in response to elevated glucose
    • Insulin stimulates the utilization of nutrients
    • Protein synthesis is coordinated by the mTOR complex
    • Glucagon maintains the blood glucose level
    • Catecholamines mediate the flight-or-fight response
    • Glucocorticoids are released in chronic stress
    • Energy is expended continuously
    • Stored fat and glycogen are degraded between meals
    • Adipose tissue is the most important energy depot
    • The liver converts dietary carbohydrates to glycogen and fat after a meal
    • The liver maintains the blood glucose level during fasting
    • Ketone bodies provide lipid-based energy during fasting
    • Obesity is common in all affluent countries
    • Appetite control is the most important determinant of obesity
    • Obesity is related to insulin resistance
    • Diabetes is caused by insulin deficiency or insulin resistance
    • In diabetes, metabolism is regulated as in starvation
    • Diabetes is diagnosed with laboratory tests
    • Diabetes leads to late complications
    • Many drugs are available for diabetes treatment
    • Contracting muscle has three energy sources
    • Physical exercise leads to adaptive changes
    • Ethanol is metabolized to acetyl-CoA in the liver
    • Liver metabolism is deranged by alcohol
    • Alcohol abuse leads to fatty liver and liver cirrhosis
    • Most “diseases of civilization” are caused by aberrant lifestyles
    • Aging is the greatest challenge for medical research
    • Antiaging treatments are being investigated
    • Summary
    • Questions
• Answers to Questions
  • Chapter 1
  • Chapter 2
  • Chapter 3
  • Chapter 4
  • Chapter 5
  • Chapter 6
  • Chapter 7
  • Chapter 8
  • Chapter 9
  • Chapter 10
  • Chapter 11
  • Chapter 12
  • Chapter 13
  • Chapter 14
  • Chapter 15
  • Chapter 16
  • Chapter 17
  • Chapter 18
  • Chapter 19
  • Chapter 20
  • Chapter 21
  • Chapter 22
  • Chapter 23
  • Chapter 24
  • Chapter 25
  • Chapter 26
  • Chapter 27
  • Chapter 28
  • Chapter 29
  • Chapter 30
  • Chapter 31
  • Chapter 32
• Glossary
• Credits
• Index

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Þú getur flakkað milli síðna og kafla eins og þér hentar best og farið beint í ákveðna kafla úr efnisyfirlitinu. Í leitinni finnur þú orð, kafla eða síður í einum smelli.

Glósur og yfirstrikanir
Þú getur auðkennt textabrot með mismunandi litum og skrifað glósur að vild í rafbókina. Þú getur jafnvel séð glósur og yfirstrikanir hjá bekkjarsystkinum og kennara ef þeir leyfa það. Allt á einum stað.

Hvað viltu sjá? / Þú ræður hvernig síðan lítur út
Þú lagar síðuna að þínum þörfum. Stækkaðu eða minnkaðu myndir og texta með multi-level zoom til að sjá síðuna eins og þér hentar best í þínu námi.



Fleiri góðir kostir
- Þú getur prentað síður úr bókinni (innan þeirra marka sem útgefandinn setur)
- Möguleiki á tengingu við annað stafrænt og gagnvirkt efni, svo sem myndbönd eða spurningar úr efninu
- Auðvelt að afrita og líma efni/texta fyrir t.d. heimaverkefni eða ritgerðir
- Styður tækni sem hjálpar nemendum með sjón- eða heyrnarskerðingu