Efnisyfirlit

• Contents
• Introduction
• Chapter 1: Stoichiometric relationships
  • 1.1: Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change
    • Chemical elements are the fundamental building blocks of chemistry
    • Chemical compounds are formed from more than one element
    • Chemical equations summarize chemical change
    • Mixtures form when substances combine without chemical interaction
    • Matter exists in different states determined by the temperature and pressure
    • Matter changes state reversibly
  • 1.2: The mole concept
    • The Avogadro constant defi nes the mole as the unit of amount in chemistry
    • Relative atomic mass is used to compare the masses of atoms
    • Relative formula mass is used to compare masses of compounds
    • Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance
    • The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest ratio of its atoms
    • Percentage composition by mass can be calculated from the empirical formula
    • The molecular formula of a compound gives the actual number of atoms in a molecule
  • 1.3: Reacting masses and volumes
    • Chemical equations show reactants combining in a fixed molar ratio
    • The theoretical yield is determined by the limiting reactant
    • The percentage yield can be calculated from the experimental and theoretical yields
    • Avogadro’s law directly relates gas volumes to moles
    • All gases under the same conditions have the same molar volume
    • The gas laws describe pressure, volume and temperature relationships for all gases
    • The ideal gas equation is derived from the combined gas equation and Avogadro’s law
    • Real gases show deviation from ideal behaviour
    • The concentration of a solution depends on moles of solute and volume of solution
    • Dilutions of solutions reduce the concentration
    • The concentration of a solution can be determined by volumetric analysis
• Chapter 2: Atomic structure
  • 2.1: The nuclear atom
    • Dalton’s model of the atom
    • Atoms contain electrons
    • Rutherford’s model of the atom
    • Sub-atomic particles
    • Bohr model of the hydrogen atom
    • Atomic number and mass number
    • Ions
    • Relative atomic masses of some elements
    • Mass spectra
  • 2.2: Electron configuration
    • The electromagnetic spectrum
    • Atomic absorption and emission line spectra
    • Evidence for the Bohr model
    • The hydrogen spectrum
    • Wave and particle models
    • The Uncertainty Principle
    • Schrödinger model of the hydrogen atom
    • Atomic orbitals
    • Sub-levels of electrons
    • Aufbau Principle: orbital diagrams
    • The relative energy of the orbitals depends on the atomic number
    • Electron configuration of ions
    • Electronic configuration and the Periodic Table
• Chapter 3: Periodicity
  • 3.1: The Periodic Table
    • Periods and groups
    • Metals and non-metals
  • 3.2: Periodic trends
    • Physical properties
    • Ionization energies
    • Chemical properties
    • Bonding of the Period 3 oxides
• Chapter 4: Chemical bonding and structure
  • 4.1: Ionic bonding and structure
    • Ions form when electrons are transferred
    • Ionic compounds form when oppositely charged ions attract
    • Ionic compounds have a lattice structure
    • The physical properties of ionic compounds reflect their lattice structure
    • Different ionic compounds have a different extent of ionic character
  • 4.2: Covalent bonding
    • A covalent bond forms by atoms sharing electrons
    • Atoms can share more than one pair of electrons to form multiple bonds
    • Short bonds are strong bonds
  • 4.3: Covalent structures
    • Lewis diagrams are used to show the arrangement of electrons in covalent molecules
    • In coordinate bonds both shared electrons come from one atom
    • The octet rule is not always followed
    • VSEPR theory: The shape of a molecule is determined by repulsion between electron domains
    • Summary of shapes of molecules predicted from VSEPR theory
    • Molecules with polar bonds are not always polar
    • Electrons in multiple bonds can sometimes spread themselves between more than one bonding position
    • Some covalent substances form giant molecular crystalline solids
  • 4.4: Intermolecular forces
    • London (dispersion) forces
    • Dipole–dipole attraction
    • Hydrogen bonding
    • The physical properties of covalent compounds are largely a result of their intermolecular forces
  • 4.5: Metallic bonding
    • Alloys are solutions of metals with enhanced properties
• Chapter 5: Energetics and thermochemistry
  • 5.1: Measuring energy changes
    • Work and heat transfer energy
    • System and surroundings
    • The heat content of a system is its enthalpy
    • Exothermic and endothermic reactions
    • Standard enthalpy changes
    • Thermochemical equations
    • Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy
    • Heat changes can be calculated from temperature changes
    • Enthalpy changes and the direction of change
    • Measuring enthalpy changes of combustion
    • Calculating enthalpies of reaction in solution from temperature changes
    • Enthalpy changes of reaction in solution
  • 5.2: Hess’s law
    • Enthalpy cycles
    • Using Hess’s law
    • Standard enthalpy changes of reaction
    • Using standard enthalpy changes of formation
  • 5.3: Bond enthalpies
    • Breaking bonds is an endothermic process
    • Making bonds is an exothermic process
    • Using bond enthalpies to calculate the enthalpy changes of reaction
    • Ozone depletion
• Chapter 6: Chemical kinetics
  • 6.1: Collision theory and rates of reaction
    • Rate of reaction is defined as the rate of change in concentration
    • Measuring rates of reaction uses different techniques depending on the reaction
    • Collision theory
    • Factors affecting rate of reaction
• Chapter 7: Equilibrium
  • 7.1: Equilibrium
    • Physical systems
    • Chemical systems
    • The equilibrium state has specific characteristics
    • The equilibrium constant Kc can be predicted from a reaction’s stoichiometry
    • The magnitude of Kc gives information on the extent of reaction
    • The reaction quotient, Q, enables us to predict the direction of reaction
    • Relationships between Kc for different equations of a reaction
    • When equilibrium is disrupted
    • Equilibrium theory is applied in many industrial processes
• Chapter 8: Acids and bases
  • 8.1: Theories of acids and bases
    • Early theories
    • Brønsted–Lowry: a theory of proton transfer
  • 8.2: Properties of acids and bases
    • Acids react with metals, bases, and carbonates to form salts
    • Acids and bases can be distinguished using indicators
  • 8.3: The pH scale
    • pH is a logarithmic expression of [H+]
    • pH calculations
    • Measuring pH
    • The relationship between H+ and OH− is inverse
    • Summary of steps in calculations of H+, OH− and pH
  • 8.4: Strong and weak acids and bases
    • The strength of an acid or base depends on its extent of ionization
    • Weak acids and bases are much more common than strong acids and bases
    • Distinguishing between strong and weak acids and bases
  • 8.5: Acid deposition
    • Causes of acid deposition
    • Effects of acid deposition
    • Responses to acid deposition
• Chapter 9: Redox processes
  • 9.1: Oxidation and reduction
    • Introduction to oxidation and reduction
    • Oxidation numbers enable us to track redox change
    • Strategy for assigning oxidation states
    • Interpreting oxidation states
    • Systematic names of compounds use oxidation numbers
    • Redox equations
    • Oxidizing and reducing agents
    • More reactive metals are stronger reducing agents
    • More reactive non-metals are stronger oxidizing agents
    • Redox titrations
  • 9.2: Electrochemical cells
    • Voltaic cells generate electricity from spontaneous redox reactions
    • Half-cells generate electrode potentials
    • Two connected half-cells make a voltaic cell
    • Different half-cells make voltaic cells with different voltages
    • An external source of electricity drives non-spontaneous redox reactions
    • Redox reactions occur at the electrodes
    • The electrolysis of molten salts
• Chapter 10: Organic chemistry
  • 10.1: Fundamentals of organic chemistry
    • Homologous series
    • Formulas for organic compounds: empirical, molecular, and structural
    • Nomenclature for organic compounds: the IUPAC system
    • Structural isomers: different arrangements of the same atoms
    • Primary, secondary, and tertiary compounds
    • Arenes
    • Trends in physical properties
  • 10.2: Functional group chemistry
    • Alkanes
    • Alkenes
    • Alcohols
    • Halogenoalkanes
    • Benzene
• Chapter 11: Measurement and data processing and analysis
  • 11.1: Uncertainties and errors in measurement and results
    • Uncertainty in measurement
    • Other sources of uncertainty
    • Significant figures in measurements
    • Experimental errors
    • Percentage uncertainties and errors
    • Propagation of uncertainties in calculated results
    • Significant figures in calculations
    • Discussing errors and uncertainties
  • 11.2: Graphical techniques
    • Plotting graphs
    • The ‘best-fit’ straight line
    • Finding the gradient of a straight line or curve
    • Errors and graphs
    • Choosing what to plot to produce a straight line
    • Sketched graphs are used to show qualitative trends
    • Using spreadsheets to plot graphs
  • 11.3: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds
    • Analytical techniques
    • Mass spectrometry
    • The degree of unsaturation/IHD
    • Different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum give different information about the structure of
    • Infrared (IR) spectroscopy
    • Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
    • Analytical chemistry depends on combining information
• Chapter 12: Option A: Materials
  • A.1: Materials science introduction
    • Materials are classifi ed based on their uses, properties, or bonding and structure
    • The properties of a material based on the degree of covalent, ionic, or metallic character can be de
    • There are four distinct classes of materials
    • Some physical properties of materials
  • A.2: Metals and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy
    • The method of extraction is related to its position in the activity series
    • The equations for the extraction can be deduced from changes in oxidation numbers
    • Aluminium is extracted from its ore (bauxite) by electrolysis
    • The amount of metal produced depends on the number of electrons supplied
    • Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals with other metals or non-metals
    • Paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials display different behaviour in magnetic fields because of the
    • Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy determines the identity and concentration of metals
  • A.3: Catalysts
    • Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis
    • Examples of catalysts: transition metals
    • Zeolites act as selective catalysts because of their cage structures
    • Nanoparticles are effective heterogeneous catalysts as they havelarge surface areas per unit mass
    • Catalytic activity can be modified with the use of promoters and inhibitors or inactivated by poison
    • Catalyst choice depends on selectivity for only the desired product and environmental impact
  • A.4: Liquid crystals
    • Thermotropic liquid crystals show liquid crystal behaviour over a temperature range
    • Lyotropic liquid crystals are solutions
    • The elasticity and electrical and optical properties depend on the orientation of the molecule to so
    • Biphenyl nitriles show liquid crystal behaviour
    • The use of biphenyl nitriles in liquid crystal display devices
    • Twisted nematic LCDs
  • A.5: Polymers
    • The density of poly(ethene) depends on the branching in the structure
    • Different orientations of side groups lead to isotactic and atactic forms
    • The properties of polyvinyl chloride are modified by using plasticizers
    • Expanded polystyrene is made by adding volatile hydrocarbons
    • Polymers can be classified based on their response to heat and applied forces
    • Atom economy is a measure of efficiency applied in Green Chemistry
  • A.6: Nanotechnology
    • Nanotechnology involves structures in the 1–100 nm range
    • Individual atoms can be visualized and manipulated using the scanning tunnelling and atomic force mi
    • Self-assembly can occur spontaneously in solution due to intermolecular interactions
    • Nanowires are used in electronic devices
    • Carbon nanotubes are made from pentagons and hexagons of carbon atoms
    • Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) can be made
    • Graphene is a single atomic plane of graphite
    • Carbon nanotubes are made by arc discharge, chemical vapour deposition (CVD), and high-pressure carb
    • Implications of nanotechnology
  • A.7: Environmental impact: plastics
    • Health concerns of using volatile plasticizer in polymer production
    • Plastics do not degrade easily because of their strong covalent bonds
    • Incineration of plastics reduces bulk, releases energy but produces air pollution
    • Incomplete combustion of PVC produces dioxins
    • Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans are dioxin-like substances and ar
    • House fires can release many toxins when plastic objects burn
    • Plastics require more processing to be recycled than other materials
    • Plastics can be identified from their IR spectrum
• Chapter 13: Option B: Biochemistry
  • B.1: Introduction to biochemistry
    • Biochemical reactions are organized in metabolic pathways
    • Biomolecules are diverse organic molecules
    • Living cells transform energy
  • B.2: Proteins and enzymes
    • The functions of proteins
    • The structure of proteins
    • Enzymes are globular proteins
    • Enzymes form a complex with the substrate
    • Analysis of proteins
  • B.3: Lipids
    • Functions of lipids
    • Structures of different lipids
    • Structure of triglycerides: fats and oils
    • Structure of phospholipids
    • Structure of steroids
  • B.4: Carbohydrates
    • Functions of carbohydrates
    • Structure of carbohydrates
  • B.5: Vitamins
    • Vitamins are organic micronutrients
    • Vitamin deficiencies are a form of malnutrition
  • B.6: Biochemistry and the environment
    • Xenobiotics: strangers to life
    • Amelioration: responses to xenobiotics
    • Green Chemistry
• Chapter 14: Option C: Energy
  • C.1: Energy sources
    • A useful energy source releases energy at a reasonable rate and produces minimal pollution
    • Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished
    • The energy density of a fuel is the energy produced per unit volume and the specific energy is the e
    • Energy conversions are never 100% efficient
  • C.2: Fossil fuels
    • Fossil fuels were formed by the reduction of biological compounds
    • Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel
    • Crude oil is a valuable fuel and chemical feedstock
    • Natural gas is mainly methane
    • The past and future of fossil fuels
    • Carbon footprint
  • C.3: Nuclear fusion and fission
    • Some particles in the particles zoo
    • The mass defect is the difference between the mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of its i
    • Binding energy graphs can be used to understand nuclear stability
    • Light nucleican undergo fusion reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon
    • The elements in the stars can be identified by their absorption spectra
    • Nuclear fusion as a possible source of energy
    • The advantages of nuclear fusion
    • Heavy nuclei can undergo fission reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon
    • Uncontrolled nuclear reactions are used in nuclear weapons
    • 239/94 Pu used as a fuel in ‘breeder reactors’ is produced from 238/92U by neutron capture
    • Nuclear waste is still radioactive
    • The half-life of radioactive isotopes
    • Nuclear waste can be high level or low level
    • Comparison between fossil fuel and nuclear power stations
  • C.4: Solar energy
    • Light can be absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments with a conjugated electronic structure
    • Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy
    • Ethanol can be used as a biofuel
    • The advantages and disadvantages of using biofuels
    • The energy content of vegetable oils
    • Transesterifi cation with ethanol or methanol produces oils with lower viscosity that can be used in
  • C.5: Environmental impact: global warming
    • Greenhouse gases absorb the long-wavelength IR radiation from the Earth
    • Greenhouse gases and their sources
    • Influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on the atmosphere
    • There is a heterogeneous equilibrium between atmospheric carbon dioxide and aqueous carbon dioxide i
    • Ocean acidification affects shell-forming animals
    • Global dimming
    • Three strategies for reducing carbon dioxide levels
• Chapter 15: Option D: Medicinal chemistry
  • D.1: Pharmaceutical products and drug action
    • The human body has many natural systems of defence
    • Medicines and drugs: some terminology
    • Drugs can be administered in different ways
    • Bioavailability of drugs: the amount that reaches the target
    • Physiological effects of drugs are complex
    • Drug action depends on interactions with receptors
    • The development of new synthetic drugs is a long and costly process
  • D.2: Aspirin and penicillin
    • Aspirin: a mild analgesic
    • Penicillin: an early antibiotic
  • D.3: Opiates
    • The opiates bind to receptor sites in the brain
    • Strong analgesics must enter the brain
    • The structures and synthesis of opiods
    • Advantages and disadvantages of using strong analgesics
  • D.4: pH regulation of the stomach
    • Excess acidity in the stomach is potentially harmful
    • Some drugs work to prevent the production of excess acid
    • Antacids are weak bases which neutralize excess acid
  • D.5: Antiviral medications
    • Viruses: nature’s most successful parasites
    • The war against viruses
    • Flu viruses: a case study in antivirals
    • AIDS: a viral pandemic
  • D.6: Environmental impact of some medications
    • Solvent waste: the major emission of the drug industry
    • Nuclear waste: an increasing problem in the drug industry
    • Antibiotic waste: are we killing the cures?
    • Obtaining the Tamiflu precursor: a Green Chemistry case study
    • Green Chemistry success stories in the pharmaceutical industry
• Green chemistry
• Experimental work in chemistry
  • Experimental work is an integral part of chemistry
  • Health, safety, and the environment
  • Practical skills
  • Assessment of experimental work
• Internal assessment
  • The investigation
  • The assessment criteria
  • Making the most of your Internal Assessment opportunity
• Theory of knowledge
  • Introduction
  • Ways of knowing: perception
  • Chemistry and technology
  • The scientific method
  • Ways of knowing: induction (reason)
  • Ways of knowing: deduction (reason)
  • Same data, different hypothesis
  • Rejecting anomalous results: confirmation bias
  • Are the models and theories that scientists use merely pragmatic instruments or do they actually des
  • Science and pseudoscience: alchemy and homeopathy
  • A web and hierarchy of disciplines
  • How does chemical knowledge change with time?
  • Paradigm shifts: phlogiston theory andthe discovery of oxygen
  • Shared and personal knowledge
  • Ways of knowing: language
  • Measurement: the observer effect
  • Knowledge and belief
  • Chemistry and ethics
  • Ways of knowing: imagination
  • The knowledge framework in chemistry
  • Chemistry and TOK assessment
  • Some examples of prescribed essay titles for you to consider
• Advice on the extended essay
  • Some advice
  • The assessment criteria
  • Bibliography and references
  • World Studies Extended Essay
• Strategies for success
  • During the course
  • Preparing for the examination
  • In the examination
• Index
• Back Cover

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