Efnisyfirlit

• Half-title
• Title page
• Copyright information
• Dedication
• Table of contents
• Glossary
• Chapter 1 MR: What’s the Attraction?
  • 1.1 It’s not Rocket Science, but I Like It
  • 1.2 A Brief History of Medical Imaging
  • 1.3 How to Use this Book
  • Further Reading
• Part I The Basic Stuff
  • Chapter 2 Early Daze: Your First Week in MR
    • 2.1 Introduction
    • 2.2 Welcome to the MR Unit
      • 2.2.1 The MR Suite
      • 2.2.2 The Magnet
      • 2.2.3 Radiofrequency Coils
      • 2.2.4 Imaging Gradients
    • 2.3 Safety First
      • 2.3.1 Will I Feel Anything? Bio-Effects
      • 2.3.2 Beware: Strong Magnetic Field
    • 2.4 Safety Second: Additional Practical Guidelines
      • 2.4.1 Contraindications and Caution
      • 2.4.2 Dealing with Implants
    • 2.5 The Patient’s Journey
    • 2.6 MRI Radiographer’s Blog . . . A Few Years On
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 3 Seeing is Believing: Introduction to Image Contrast
    • 3.1 Introduction
    • 3.2 Introduction to the T-Words
    • 3.3 T2-Weighted Images
    • 3.4 FLAIR Images
    • 3.5 T1-Weighted Images
    • 3.6 T1w Images Post-Gd
    • 3.7 STIR Images
    • 3.8 PD-Weighted Images
    • 3.9 Gradient-Echo Images
      • 3.9.1 Gradient-Echo T1-Weighted Images
      • 3.9.2 Gradient-Echo T2*-Weighted Images
    • 3.10 More About Contrast Agents
    • 3.11 Angiographic Images
    • 3.12 Diffusion-Weighted Images
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 4 Lost in the Pulse Sequence Jungle?
    • 4.1 Introduction
    • 4.2 Anatomy of a Pulse Sequence
      • 4.2.1 Examinations, Sequences and Parameters
      • 4.2.2 The Pulse Sequence Family Tree
    • 4.3 Take Me for a Spin (Echo)
      • 4.3.1 Turbo Spin Echo: The Work Horse
      • 4.3.2 TSE Variants
    • 4.4 The Other Branch of the Tree: Gradient Echo
      • 4.4.1 Making the Grade: Gradient Echo
      • 4.4.2 Spoiled Gradient Echo
      • 4.4.3 Rewound Gradient Echo
      • 4.4.4 Ultrafast GE Sequences
    • 4.5 Echo Planar Imaging
    • 4.6 The Pulse Sequence Traveller
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 5 The Devil’s in the Detail: Pixels, Matrices and Slices
    • 5.1 Introduction
    • 5.2 From Analogue Signal to Digital Image
    • 5.3 Matrices, Pixels and an Introduction to Resolution
    • 5.4 Slices and Orientations
    • 5.5 Displaying Images
    • 5.6 What do the Pixels Represent?
    • 5.7 From 2D to 3D
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 6 What You Set is What You Get: Basic Image Optimization
    • 6.1 Introduction
    • 6.2 Looking on the Bright Side: What are we Trying to Optimize?
      • 6.2.1 Contrast
      • 6.2.2 SNR and CNR
      • 6.2.3 Resolution
    • 6.3 Trading Places: Resolution, SNR and Scan Time
      • 6.3.1 Resolution and SNR
      • 6.3.2 Resolution and Scan Time
      • 6.3.3 Predicting the Effect on Image Quality
      • 6.3.4 2D Versus 3D
    • 6.4 Ever the Optimist: Practical Steps to Optimization
      • 6.4.1 Check Your Slices
      • 6.4.2 How to Boost SNR
        • Increase the slice thickness
        • Increase the FOV
        • Reduce the bandwidth
        • Select a pre-processing filter
      • 6.4.3 Check Your Scan Time Again
      • 6.4.4 Tweaker’s Charter
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 7 Improving Your Image: How to Avoid Artefacts
    • 7.1 Introduction
    • 7.2 Keep Still Please! Motion Artefacts
      • 7.2.1 Gross Patient Motion
      • 7.2.2 Respiratory Motion
      • 7.2.3 Cardiac Motion
      • 7.2.4 Peristaltic Motion
      • 7.2.5 Motion Artefacts from Flowing Blood
    • 7.3 Lose the Fat!
      • 7.3.1 Chemical Shift Artefact
      • 7.3.2 Phase Cancellation Artefact
      • 7.3.3 MRI Liposuction: Removing Fat Signals
    • 7.4 Digital Imaging Artefacts
      • 7.4.1 Partial Volume Artefact
      • 7.4.2 Cross-Talk
      • 7.4.3 Phase Wrap-Around Artefact
      • 7.4.4 Gibbs’ Artefact
      • 7.4.5 Parallel Imaging Artefacts
    • 7.5 Susceptibility and Metal Artefacts
    • 7.6 Equipment Artefacts
      • 7.6.1 Zipper Artefact
      • 7.6.2 Gradient Non-Linearity
      • 7.6.3 Herring-Bone Artefact (Spike Noise)
    • 7.7 What’s Causing this Artefact?
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 8 Spaced Out: Spatial Encoding
    • 8.1 Introduction
    • 8.2 Anatomy of a Pulse Sequence
    • 8.3 From Larmor to Fourier via Gradients
      • 8.3.1 Larmor Equation
      • 8.3.2 Gradients
      • 8.3.3 Dephasing and Rephasing
      • 8.3.4 Fourier Transforms
    • 8.4 Something to get Excited About: The Image Slice
      • 8.4.1 Selective Excitation
      • 8.4.2 What’s Your Orientation? Manipulating the Slice
      • 8.4.3 Multiple Slices
      • 8.4.4 Rephasing
    • 8.5 In-Plane Localization
      • 8.5.1 Spatial Frequencies Demystified
      • 8.5.2 Totally Fazed: Phase Encoding
      • 8.5.3 Frequency Encoding
      • 8.5.4 Spatial Encoding: A Musical Analogy
      • 8.5.5 2D FT Reconstruction
      • 8.5.6 Resolution and Field of View
    • 8.6 Consequences of Fourier Imaging
      • 8.6.1 Adventures in k-Space
      • 8.6.2 Artefacts
    • 8.7 Speeding It Up
      • 8.7.1 Half Fourier
      • 8.7.2 Reduced Matrix
      • 8.7.3 Rectangular Field of View
    • 8.8 3D FT
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 9 Getting in Tune: Resonance and Relaxation
    • 9.1 Introduction
    • 9.2 Spinning Nuclei
      • 9.2.1 Classical Mechanics Explanation of NMR
      • 9.2.2 Quantum Mechanics Explanation
    • 9.3 Measuring the Magnetic Moment
    • 9.4 Relaxation Times
    • 9.5 Creating Echoes
      • 9.5.1 The ‘Runners on a Track’ Analogy (Slightly Reworked)
    • 9.6 Relaxation Time Mechanisms
      • 9.6.1 Spin-Lattice Relaxation
      • 9.6.2 Spin-Spin Relaxation
      • 9.6.3 BPP Theory for Body Tissues
      • 9.6.4 Magnetization Transfer and J-Coupling
    • 9.7 Gadolinium-based Contrast Agents
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 10 Let’s Talk Technical: MR Equipment
    • 10.1 Introduction
    • 10.2 Magnets
      • 10.2.1 Field Strength
      • 10.2.2 Homogeneity
      • 10.2.3 B0 Mapping
      • 10.2.4 Installation Footprint
    • 10.3 Gradient Subsystem
      • 10.3.1 Gradient Strength and Slew Rate
      • 10.3.2 Gradient Duty Cycle
      • 10.3.3 Gradient Linearity
      • 10.3.4 Gradient Amplifiers
      • 10.3.5 Acoustic Noise
    • 10.4 Radiofrequency Transmit Subsystem
      • 10.4.1 Transmitter and RF Amplifier
      • 10.4.2 B1 Mapping
      • 10.4.3 Transmit Coils
    • 10.5 RF Receiver Subsystem
      • 10.5.1 Receive Coils
      • 10.5.2 Phased Array Coils
      • 10.5.3 Preamplifier
      • 10.5.4 Receiver (Digitizer)
    • 10.6 Computer Systems
    • 10.7 Siting and Installation
      • 10.7.1 Radiofrequency Shielding
      • 10.7.2 Technical Environment
    • 10.8 Other Types of MRI Systems
      • 10.8.1 Open MRI Systems
      • 10.8.2 Interventional (Therapy) Systems
      • 10.8.3 Niche Systems
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 11 Ghosts in the Machine: Quality Control
    • 11.1 Introduction
    • 11.2 The Quality Cycle
    • 11.3 Signal Parameters
      • 11.3.1 SNR
      • 11.3.2 Uniformity
    • 11.4 Geometric Parameters
      • 11.4.1 Linearity and Distortion
      • 11.4.2 Resolution
      • 11.4.3 Slice Parameters
    • 11.5 Relaxation Parameters
    • 11.6 Artefacts
      • 11.6.1 Ghosting
      • 11.6.2 Chemical Shift and Fat Suppression
    • 11.7 Spectroscopic QA
    • 11.8 Temporal Stability
    • 11.9 Other Specialist QA
    • Further Reading
• Part II The Specialist Stuff
  • Chapter 12 Acronyms Anonymous I: Spin Echo
    • 12.1 Introduction
    • 12.2 Conventional Spin Echo
      • 12.2.1 Limitations of Spin Echo
      • 12.2.2 Multi-Echo Spin Echo
    • 12.3 RARING to Go: Fast Spin-Echo Techniques
      • 12.3.1 Turbo Spin Echo in Detail
      • 12.3.2 A Compromising Situation
    • 12.4 The Extended Family of TSE
      • 12.4.1 Inversion Recovery TSE
      • 12.4.2 Drive Time: Driven Equilibrium
      • 12.4.3 Single-Shot TSE and HASTE
      • 12.4.4 3D TSE
      • 12.4.5 Radially Acquired TSE
    • 12.5 Combining Gradient and Spin Echoes
      • 12.5.1 GRASE
      • 12.5.2 Echo Planar Imaging
      • 12.5.3 Image Quality in EPI
      • 12.5.4 Multi-Shot EPI
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 13 Acronyms Anonymous II: Gradient Echo
    • 13.1 Introduction
    • 13.2 Image Formation in Gradient Echo
    • 13.3 One Tree, Many Branches: FIDs, Echoes and Coherences
      • 13.3.1 Spoiled Gradient Echo
      • 13.3.2 Rewound Gradient Echo
      • 13.3.3 Echoes Only: Time-Reversed Gradient Echo
      • 13.3.4 Double Trouble: DESS and CISS
    • 13.4 Ultra-Fast GE Imaging
      • 13.4.1 Turbo-FLASH
      • 13.4.2 MP-RAGE
      • 13.4.3 Other Ultrafast GE Sequence Variations
      • 13.4.4 GE Echo Planar Imaging
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 14 The Parallel Universe: Parallel Imaging and Novel Acquisition Techniques
    • 14.1 Introduction
    • 14.2 Groundwork
      • 14.2.1 Simple Conceptual Explanation of k-Space and Phase Encoding
      • 14.2.2 Basic Principles of Phased Arrays
      • 14.2.3 Coil Sensitivity Profiles
    • 14.3 Making SENSE: Parallel Imaging in Image Space
      • 14.3.1 SENSE
      • 14.3.2 mSENSE
    • 14.4 SMASH Hits: Parallel Imaging in k-Space
      • 14.4.1 SMASH
      • 14.4.2 Auto-Calibrating SMASH
      • 14.4.3 GRAPPA and ARC
      • 14.4.4 Air on a g-Factor: CAIPIRINHA
    • 14.5 Undersampling by Simultaneous Multi-Slice Excitation
    • 14.6 Image Quality in Parallel Imaging
    • 14.7 k-t BLAST
    • 14.8 Non-Cartesian Acquisition Schemes
      • 14.8.1 2D and 3D Radial Imaging
      • 14.8.2 Spiral
    • 14.9 Compressed Sensing
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 15 Go with the Flow: MR Angiography
    • 15.1 Introduction
    • 15.2 Effect of Flow in Conventional Imaging
      • 15.2.1 Time-of-Flight Effects
      • 15.2.2 Flow Artefacts
      • 15.2.3 The MR Angio Pulse Sequence Jungle
    • 15.3 Non-Contrast MR Angiography
      • 15.3.1 Time-of-Flight Angiography
      • 15.3.2 Phase Contrast Angiography
      • 15.3.3 3D ECG-Triggered TSE-Based NC-MRA
      • 15.3.4 Balanced Steady-State-Free-Precession
    • 15.4 Contrast-Enhanced MRA
      • 15.4.1 Timing Matters
      • 15.4.2 4D (Dynamic) CE-MRA
      • 15.4.3 Contrast Agents
    • 15.5 Susceptibility-Weighted Imaging
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 16 A Heart to Heart Discussion: Cardiac MRI
    • 16.1 Introduction
    • 16.2 Patient Set-up
    • 16.3 Morphological Imaging
    • 16.4 Functional Imaging
      • 16.4.1 Balanced Steady-State-Free-Precession
      • 16.4.2 Segmented k-Space Acquisitions
      • 16.4.3 Prospective and Retrospective Cine Imaging
      • 16.4.4 View Sharing
      • 16.4.5 Functional Cardiac Analysis
      • 16.4.6 Quantitative Velocity and Flow Imaging
    • 16.5 Myocardial Perfusion
    • 16.6 Myocardial Viability
    • 16.7 Myocardial Tissue Characterization
    • 16.8 Coronary Artery Imaging
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 17 It’s Not Just Squiggles: In Vivo Spectroscopy
    • 17.1 Introduction
    • 17.2 Some Basic Chemistry
    • 17.3 Single-Voxel Spectroscopy
      • 17.3.1 Steam
      • 17.3.2 Press
      • 17.3.3 Voxel Positioning
    • 17.4 Processing of Single-Voxel Spectra
    • 17.5 Chemical Shift Imaging
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 18 To BOLDly Go: fMRI, Perfusion and Diffusion
    • 18.1 Introduction
    • 18.2 Diffusion Imaging
      • 18.2.1 A Trip to the Mall: Molecular Motion
      • 18.2.2 Pulsed Gradient Spin Echo
      • 18.2.3 Anisotropy and Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
      • 18.2.4 Diffusion Sequences
    • 18.3 Perfusion Imaging
      • 18.3.1 Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast MRI
      • 18.3.2 Arterial Spin Labelling
    • 18.4 Dynamic Contrast Enhancement: Permeability Imaging
    • 18.5 Brain Activation Mapping Using the BOLD Effect
      • 18.5.1 The BOLD Effect
      • 18.5.2 fMRI Acquisitions
      • 18.5.3 fMRI Processing
      • 18.5.4 Interpreting fMRI: ‘Blobology’
      • 18.5.5 Paradigm Shift
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 19 Making it Count: Quantitative MRI
    • 19.1 Introduction
    • 19.2 Relaxation Times
      • 19.2.1 T1 Relaxation Time
      • 19.2.2 T2 and T2* Relaxation Times
      • 19.2.3 Sources of Error in In Vivo Relaxometry
    • 19.3 Diffusion Parameters
    • 19.4 Tissue Perfusion and Permeability
    • 19.5 Fat Quantification
    • 19.6 MR Elastography
    • 19.7 Accuracy, Precision, and Diagnostic Confidence
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 20 But is it Safe? Bio-effects
    • 20.1 Introduction
    • 20.2 Radiofrequency Effects
      • 20.2.1 Specific Absorption Rate
      • 20.2.2 Staying Cool: Reducing SAR
      • 20.2.3 RF Exposure Standards
    • 20.3 Gradient Effects
      • 20.3.1 Stimulation Effects
      • 20.3.2 Gradient Noise
      • 20.3.3 Gradient Exposure Standards
    • 20.4 Static Field Effects
      • 20.4.1 Flow Effects
      • 20.4.2 Force Fields
      • 20.4.3 Static Field Exposure Standards
    • 20.5 MR Exposures and Pregnancy
    • 20.6 Occupational Exposure
    • 20.7 Contrast Agent Safety
    • 20.8 So is MRI Safe?
    • Further Reading
  • Chapter 21 Where Are We Going Now?
    • 21.1 Introduction
    • 21.2 7 Tesla Systems
    • 21.3 Hyperpolarization
    • 21.4 MR-PET
    • 21.5 MR-LINAC
    • Further Reading
• Appendix: maths revision
  • A.1 Vectors
  • A.2 Sine and Cosine Waves
  • A.3 Exponentials
  • A.4 Complex Numbers
  • A.5 Simple Fourier Analysis
  • A.6 Some Useful Constants
• Index

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