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• About this Book
  • Cover Page
  • Halftitle Page
  • Icons Used in This Book
  • Title Page
  • Copyright Page
  • Dedication
  • About the Authors
  • Brief Contents
  • Feature Boxes in Kuby Immunology, Eighth Edition
  • Contents
  • Preface
  • Acknowledgments
• Chapter 1: Overview of the Immune System
  • A Historical Perspective of Immunology
    • Early Vaccination Studies Led the Way to Immunology
    • Vaccination Is an Ongoing, Worldwide Enterprise
    • Immunology Is about More than Just Vaccines and Infectious Disease
    • Immunity Involves Both Humoral and Cellular Components
    • How Are Foreign Substances Recognized by the Immune System?
  • Important Concepts for Understanding the Mammalian Immune Response
    • Pathogens Come in Many Forms and Must First Breach Natural Barriers
    • The Immune Response Quickly Becomes Tailored to Suit the Assault
    • Pathogen Recognition Molecules Can Be Encoded as Genes or Generated by DNA Rearrangement
    • Tolerance Ensures That the Immune System Avoids Destroying the Host
    • The Immune Response Is Composed of Two Interconnected Arms: Innate Immunity and Adaptive Immunity
    • Immune Cells and Molecules Can Be Found in Many Places
    • Adaptive Immune Responses Typically Generate Memory
  • The Good, Bad, and Ugly of the Immune System
    • Inappropriate or Dysfunctional Immune Responses Can Result in a Range of Disorders
    • The Immune Response Renders Tissue Transplantation Challenging
    • Cancer Presents a Unique Challenge to the Immune Response
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 2: Cells, Organs, and Microenvironments of the Immune System
  • Hematopoiesis and Cells of the Immune System
    • Hematopoietic Stem Cells Differentiate into All Red and White Blood Cells
    • HSCs Differentiate into Myeloid and Lymphoid Blood Cell Lineages
    • Cells of the Myeloid Lineage Are the First Responders to Infection
    • Cells of the Lymphoid Lineage Regulate the Adaptive Immune Response
  • Primary Lymphoid Organs: Where Immune Cells Develop
    • The Site of Hematopoiesis Changes during Embryonic Development
    • The Bone Marrow Is the Main Site of Hematopoiesis in the Adult
    • The Thymus Is the Primary Lymphoid Organ Where T Cells Mature
  • Secondary Lymphoid Organs: Where the Immune Response Is Initiated
    • Secondary Lymphoid Organs Are Distributed throughout the Body and Share Some Anatomical Features
    • Blood and Lymphatics Connect Lymphoid Organs and Infected Tissue
    • The Lymph Node Is a Highly Specialized Secondary Lymphoid Organ
    • The Spleen Organizes the Immune Response against Blood-Borne Pathogens
    • Barrier Organs Also Have Secondary Lymphoid Tissue
    • Tertiary Lymphoid Tissues Also Organize and Maintain an Immune Response
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 3: Recognition and Response
  • General Properties of Immune Receptor-Ligand Interactions
    • Receptor-Ligand Binding Occurs via Multiple Noncovalent Bonds
    • How Do We Describe the Strength of Receptor-Ligand Interactions?
    • Interactions between Receptors and Ligands Can Be Multivalent
    • Combinatorial Expression of Protein Chains Can Increase Ligand-Binding Diversity
    • Adaptive Immune Receptor Genes Undergo Rearrangement in Individual Lymphocytes
    • Levels of Receptor and Ligand Expression Can Vary during an Immune Response
    • Local Concentrations of Ligands May Be Extremely High during Cell-Cell Interactions
    • Many Immune Receptors Include Immunoglobulin Domains
    • Immune Antigen Receptors Can Be Transmembrane, Cytosolic, or Secreted
  • Immune Antigen Receptor Systems
    • The B-Cell Receptor Has the Same Antigen Specificity as Its Secreted Antibodies
    • T-Cell Antigen Receptors Recognize Antigen in the Context of MHC Proteins
    • Receptors of Innate Immunity Bind to Conserved Molecules on Pathogens
  • Cytokines and Their Receptors
    • Cytokines Are Described by Their Functions and the Distances at Which They Act
    • Cytokines Exhibit the Attributes of Pleiotropy, Redundancy, Synergism, Antagonism, and Cascade Induction
    • Cytokines of the IL-1 Family Promote Proinflammatory Signals
    • Class 1 Cytokines Share a Common Structural Motif But Have Varied Functions
    • Class 2 Cytokines Are Grouped into Three Families of Interferons
    • TNF Family Cytokines May Be Soluble or Membrane-Bound
    • The IL-17 Family of Cytokines and Receptors Is the Most Recently Identified
    • Chemokines Induce the Directed Movement of Leukocytes
  • A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Cell Signaling
    • Ligand Binding Can Induce Dimerization or Multimerization of Receptors
    • Ligand Binding Can Induce Phosphorylation of Tyrosine Residues in Receptors or Receptor-Associated Molecules
    • Src-Family Kinases Play Important Early Roles in the Activation of Many Immune Cells
    • Intracellular Adapter Proteins Gather Members of Signaling Pathways
    • Common Sequences of Downstream Effector Relays Pass the Signal to the Nucleus
    • Not All Ligand-Receptor Signals Result in Transcriptional Alterations
  • Immune Responses: The Outcomes of Immune System Recognition
    • Changes in Protein Expression Facilitate Migration of Leukocytes into Infected Tissues
    • Activated Macrophages and Neutrophils May Clear Pathogens without Invoking Adaptive Immunity
    • Antigen Activation Optimizes Antigen Presentation by Dendritic Cells
    • Cytokine Secretion by Dendritic Cells and T Cells Can Direct the Subsequent Immune Response
    • Antigen Stimulation by T and B Cells Promotes Their Longer-Term Survival
    • Antigen Binding by T Cells Induces Their Division and Differentiation
    • Antigen Binding by B Cells Induces Their Division and Differentiation
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 4: Innate Immunity
  • Anatomical Barriers to Infection
    • Epithelial Barriers Prevent Pathogen Entry into the Body’s Interior
    • Antimicrobial Proteins and Peptides Kill Would-Be Invaders
  • Cellular Innate Response Receptors and Signaling
    • Toll-Like Receptors Initiate Responses to Many Types of Molecules from Extracellular Pathogens
    • C-Type Lectin Receptors Bind Carbohydrates on the Surfaces of Extracellular Pathogens
    • NOD-Like Receptors Bind PAMPs from Cytosolic Pathogens
    • ALRs Bind Cytosolic DNA
    • RLRs Bind Cytosolic Viral RNA
    • cGAS and STING Are Activated by Cytosolic DNA and Dinucleotides
  • Induced Innate Immunity Effector Mechanisms
    • Expression of Innate Immunity Proteins Is Induced by PRR Signaling
    • Phagocytosis Is an Important Mechanism for Eliminating Pathogens
    • Regulated Cell Death Contributes to Pathogen Elimination
    • Local Inflammation Is Triggered by Innate Immune Responses
  • Innate Lymphoid Cells
    • Natural Killer Cells Are ILCs with Cytotoxic Activity
    • ILC Populations Produce Distinct Cytokines and Have Different Roles
  • Regulation and Evasion of Innate and Inflammatory Responses
    • Innate and Inflammatory Responses Can Be Harmful
    • Innate and Inflammatory Responses Are Regulated Both Positively and Negatively
    • Pathogens Have Evolved Mechanisms to Evade Innate and Inflammatory Responses
  • Interactions between the Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems
    • The Innate Immune System Activates Adaptive Immune Responses
    • Recognition of Pathogens by Dendritic Cells Influences Helper T-Cell Differentiation
    • Some Antigens Containing PAMPs Can Activate B Cells Independent of Helper T Cells
    • Adjuvants Activate Innate Immune Responses That Increase the Effectiveness of Immunizations
    • Some Pathogen Clearance Mechanisms Are Common to Both Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses
  • Ubiquity of Innate Immunity
    • Some Innate Immune System Components Occur across the Plant and Animal Kingdoms
    • Invertebrate and Vertebrate Innate Immune Responses Show Both Similarities and Differences
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 5: The Complement System
  • The Major Pathways of Complement Activation
    • The Classical Pathway Is Initiated by Antibody Binding to Antigens
    • The Lectin Pathway Is Initiated When Soluble Proteins Recognize Microbial Antigens
    • The Alternative Pathway Is Initiated in Three Distinct Ways
    • The Three Complement Pathways Converge at the Formation of C5 Convertase and Generation of the MAC
  • The Diverse Functions of Complement
    • Complement Receptors Connect Complement-Tagged Pathogens to Effector Cells
    • Complement Enhances Host Defense against Infection
    • Complement Acts at the Interface between Innate and Adaptive Immunities
    • Complement Aids in the Contraction Phase of the Immune Response
  • The Regulation of Complement Activity
    • Complement Activity Is Passively Regulated by Short Protein Half-Lives and Host Cell Surface Composition
    • The C1 Inhibitor, C1INH, Promotes Dissociation of C1 Components
    • Decay-Accelerating Factor Promotes Decay of C3 Convertases
    • Factor I Degrades C3b and C4b
    • CD59 (Protectin) Inhibits the MAC Attack
    • Carboxypeptidases Can Inactivate the Anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a
  • Complement Deficiencies
  • Microbial Complement Evasion Strategies
  • The Evolutionary Origins of the Complement System
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 6: The Organization and Expression of Lymphocyte Receptor Genes
  • The Puzzle of Immunoglobulin Gene Structure
    • Investigators Proposed Two Early Theoretical Models of Antibody Genetics
    • Breakthrough Experiments Revealed That Multiple Gene Segments Encode the Immunoglobulin Light Chain
  • Multigene Organization of Immunoglobulin Genes
    • κ Light-Chain Genes Include V, J, and C Segments
    • λ Light-Chain Genes Include Paired J and C Segments
    • Heavy-Chain Gene Organization Includes VH, D, JH, and CH Segments
    • The Antibody Genes Found in Mature B Cells Are the Product of DNA Recombination
  • The Mechanism of V(D)J Recombination
    • V(D)J Recombination in Lymphocytes Is a Highly Regulated Sequential Process
    • Recombination Is Directed by Recombination Signal Sequences
    • Gene Segments Are Joined by a Diverse Group of Proteins
    • V(D)J Recombination Occurs in a Series of Well-Regulated Steps
    • Five Mechanisms Generate Antibody Diversity in Naïve B Cells
    • The Regulation of V(D)J Gene Recombination Involves Chromatin Alteration
  • B-Cell Receptor Expression
    • Each B Cell Synthesizes only one Heavy Chain and One Light Chain
    • Receptor Editing of Potentially Autoreactive Receptors Occurs in Light Chains
    • mRNA Splicing Regulates the Expression of Membrane-Bound versus Secreted Ig
  • T-Cell Receptor Genes and Their Expression
    • Understanding the Protein Structure of the TCR Was Critical to the Process of Discovering the Genes
    • The β-Chain Gene Was Discovered Simultaneously in Two Different Laboratories
    • A Search for the α-Chain Gene Led to the γ-Chain Gene Instead
    • TCR Genes Are Arranged in V, D, and J Clusters of Gene Segments
    • Recombination of TCR Gene Segments Proceeds at a Different Rate and Occurs at Different Stages of Development in αβ versus γδ T Cells
    • The Process of TCR Gene Segment Rearrangement Is Very Similar to Immunoglobulin Gene Recombination
    • TCR Expression Is Controlled by Allelic Exclusion
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 7: The Major Histocompatibility Complex and Antigen Presentation
  • The Structure and Function of MHC Class I and II Molecules
    • Class I Molecules Consist of One Large Glycoprotein Heavy Chain Plus a Small Protein Light Chain
    • Class II Molecules Consist of Two Nonidentical Membrane-Bound Glycoprotein Chains
    • Class I and II Molecules Exhibit Polymorphism in the Region That Binds to Peptides
  • The Organization and Inheritance of MHC Genes
    • The MHC Locus Encodes the Three Major Classes of MHC Molecules
    • Allelic Forms of MHC Genes Are Inherited in Linked Groups Called Haplotypes
    • MHC Molecules Are Codominantly Expressed
    • Class I and Class II Molecules Exhibit Diversity at Both the Individual and Species Levels
    • MHC Polymorphism Is Primarily Limited to the Antigen-Binding Groove
  • The Role and Expression Pattern of MHC Molecules
    • MHC Molecules Present Both Intracellular and Extracellular Antigens
    • MHC Class I Expression Is Found Throughout the Body
    • Expression of MHC Class II Molecules Is Primarily Restricted to Antigen-Presenting Cells
    • MHC Expression Can Change with Changing Conditions
    • MHC Alleles Play a Critical Role in Immune Responsiveness
    • Seminal Studies Demonstrate That T Cells Recognize Peptide Presented in the Context of Self-MHC Alleles
    • Evidence Suggests Distinct Antigen Processing and Presentation Pathways
  • The Endogenous Pathway of Antigen Processing and Presentation
    • Peptides Are Generated by Protease Complexes Called Proteasomes
    • Peptides Are Transported from the Cytosol to the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
    • Chaperones Aid Peptide Assembly with MHC Class I Molecules
  • The Exogenous Pathway of Antigen Processing and Presentation
    • Peptides Are Generated from Internalized Antigens in Endocytic Vesicles
    • The Invariant Chain Guides Transport of MHC Class II Molecules to Endocytic Vesicles
    • Peptides Assemble with MHC Class II Molecules by Displacing CLIP
  • Unconventional Antigen Processing and Presentation
    • Dendritic Cells Can Cross-Present Exogenous Antigen via MHC Class I Molecules
    • Cross-Presentation by APCs Is Essential for the Activation of Naïve CD8+ T Cells
  • Presentation of Nonpeptide Antigens
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 8: T-Cell Development
  • Early Thymocyte Development
    • Thymocytes Progress through Four Double-Negative Stages
    • Thymocytes Express Either αβ or γδ T Cell Receptors
    • DN Thymocytes Undergo β-Selection, Which Results in Proliferation and Differentiation
  • Positive and Negative Selection
    • Thymocytes “Learn” MHC Restriction in the Thymus
    • T Cells Undergo Positive and Negative Selection
    • Positive Selection Ensures MHC Restriction
    • Negative Selection (Central Tolerance) Ensures Self-Tolerance
    • The Selection Paradox: Why Don’t We Delete All Cells We Positively Select?
    • An Alternative Model Can Explain the Thymic Selection Paradox
    • Do Positive and Negative Selection Occur at the Same Stage of Development, or in Sequence?
  • Lineage Commitment
    • Several Models Have Been Proposed to Explain Lineage Commitment
    • Transcription Factors Th-POK and Runx3 Regulate Lineage Commitment
    • Double-Positive Thymocytes May Commit to Other Types of Lymphocytes
  • Exit from the Thymus and Final Maturation
  • Other Mechanisms That Maintain Self-Tolerance
    • TREG Cells Negatively Regulate Immune Responses
    • Peripheral Mechanisms of Tolerance Also Protect against Autoreactive Thymocytes
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 9: B-Cell Development
  • B-Cell Development in the Bone Marrow
    • Changes in Cell-Surface Markers, Gene Expression, and Immunoglobulin Gene Rearrangements Define the Stages of B-Cell Development
    • The Earliest Steps in Lymphocyte Differentiation Culminate in the Generation of a Common Lymphoid Progenitor
    • The Later Stages of B-Cell Development Result in Commitment to the B-Cell Phenotype and the Stepwise Rearrangement of Immunoglobulin Genes
    • Immature B Cells in the Bone Marrow Are Exquisitely Sensitive to Tolerance Induction through the Elimination of Self-Reactive Cells
  • Completion of B-Cell Development in the Spleen
    • T1 and T2 Transitional B Cells Form in the Spleen and Undergo Selection for Survival and against Self-Reactivity
    • T2 B Cells Give Rise to Mature Follicular B-2 B Cells
    • T3 B Cells Are Primarily Self-Reactive and Anergic
  • The Properties and Development of B-1 and Marginal Zone B Cells
    • B-1a, B-1b, and MZ B Cells Differ Phenotypically and Functionally from B-2 B Cells
    • B-1a B Cells Are Derived from a Distinct Developmental Lineage
  • Comparison of B- and T-Cell Development
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 10: T-Cell Activation, Helper Subset Differentiation, and Memory
  • T-Cell Activation and the Two-Signal Hypothesis
    • TCR Signaling Provides Signal 1 and Sets the Stage for T-Cell Activation
    • Costimulatory Signals Are Required for Optimal T-Cell Activation Whereas Coinhibitory Signals Prevent T-Cell Activation
    • Clonal Anergy Results If a Costimulatory Signal Is Absent
    • Cytokines Provide Signal 3
    • Antigen-Presenting Cells Provide Costimulatory Ligands and Cytokines to Naïve T Cells
    • Superantigens Are a Special Class of T-Cell Activators
  • Helper CD4+ T-Cell Differentiation
    • Helper T Cells Can Be Divided into Distinct Subsets and Coordinate Type 1 and Type 2 Responses
    • The Differentiation of Helper T-Cell Subsets Is Regulated by Polarizing Cytokines
    • Each Effector Helper T-Cell Subset Has Unique Properties
    • Helper T Cells May Not Be Irrevocably Committed to a Lineage
    • Helper T-Cell Subsets Play Critical Roles in Immune Health and Disease
  • T-Cell Memory
    • Naïve, Effector, and Memory T Cells Can Be Distinguished by Differences in Surface Protein Expression
    • Memory Cell Subpopulations Are Distinguished by Their Locale and Effector Activity
    • Many Questions Remain Surrounding Memory T-Cell Origins and Functions
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 11: B-Cell Activation, Differentiation, and Memory Generation
  • T-Dependent B-Cell Responses: Activation
    • Naïve B Cells Encounter Antigen in the Lymph Nodes and Spleen
    • B-Cell Recognition of Cell-Bound Antigen Culminates in the Formation of an Immunological Synapse
    • Antigen Binding to the BCR Leads to Activation of a Signal Transduction Cascade within the B Cell
    • B Cells Also Receive and Propagate Signals through Coreceptors
    • B Cells Use More Than One Mechanism to Acquire Antigen from Antigen-Presenting Cells
    • Antigen Receptor Binding Induces Internalization and Antigen Presentation
    • The Early Phases of the T-Dependent Response Are Characterized by Chemokine-Directed B-Cell Migration
    • Specification of the Stimulated B-Cell Fate Depends on Transcription Factor Expression
  • T-Dependent B-Cell Responses: Differentiation and Memory Generation
    • Some Activated B Cells Differentiate into Plasma Cells That Form the Primary Focus
    • Other Activated B Cells Enter the Follicles and Initiate a Germinal Center Response
    • The Mechanisms of Somatic Hypermutation and Class Switch Recombination
    • Memory B Cells Recognizing T-Dependent Antigens Are Generated Both within and outside the Germinal Center
    • Most Newly Generated B Cells Are Lost at the End of the Primary Immune Response
  • T-Independent B-Cell Responses
    • T-Independent Antigens Stimulate Antibody Production in the Absence of T-Cell Help
    • Two Novel Subclasses of B Cells Mediate the Response to T-Independent Antigens
  • Negative Regulation of B Cells
    • Negative Signaling through CD22 Balances Positive BCR-Mediated Signaling
    • Negative Signaling through the Receptor FcγRIIb Inhibits B-Cell Activation
    • CD5 Acts as a Negative Regulator of B-Cell Signaling
    • B-10 B Cells Act as Negative Regulators by Secreting IL-10
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 12: Effector Responses: Antibody- and Cell-Mediated Immunity
  • Antibody-Mediated Effector Functions
    • Antibodies Provide Protection against Pathogens, Toxins, and Harmful Cells in a Variety of Ways
    • Different Antibody Classes Mediate Different Effector Functions
    • Fc Receptors Mediate Many Effector Functions of Antibodies
    • Protective Effector Functions Vary among Antibody Classes
    • Antibodies Have Many Therapeutic Uses in Treating Diseases
  • Cell-Mediated Effector Responses
    • Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes Recognize and Kill Infected or Tumor Cells via T-Cell Receptor Activation
    • Natural Killer Cell Activity Depends on the Balance of Activating and Inhibitory Signals
    • NKT Cells Bridge the Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 13: Barrier Immunity: The Immunology of Mucosa and Skin
  • Common Themes in Barrier Immune Systems
    • All Barrier Surfaces Are Lined by One or More Layers of Epithelial Cells
    • Barrier Organs Are Populated by Innate and Adaptive Immune Cells That Interact with Epithelium and Secondary Lymphoid Tissue
    • Barrier Immune Systems Initiate Both Tolerogenic and Inflammatory Responses to Microorganisms
  • Intestinal Immunity
    • The Gut Is Organized into Different Anatomical Sections and Tissue Layers
    • Gut Epithelial Cells Vary in Phenotype and Function
  • Setting the Stage: Maintaining Immune Homeostasis in the Intestine
    • The Gut Immune System Maintains a Barrier between the Microbiome and the Epithelium
    • Antigen Is Delivered from the Intestinal Lumen to Antigen-Presenting Cells in Multiple Ways
    • Immune Homeostasis in the Intestine Is Promoted by Several Innate and Adaptive Cell Types
    • The Immune Systems in the Small and Large Intestines Differ
    • Commensal Microbes Help Maintain Tolerogenic Tone in the Intestine
  • Springing into Action: Intestinal Immune System Response to Invasion
    • The Gut Immune System Recognizes and Responds to Harmful Pathogens
    • The Intestinal Immune System Can Mount Both Type 1 and Type 2 Responses
  • Dysbiosis, Inflammatory Bowel Disease, and Celiac Disease
  • Other Barrier Immune Systems
    • The Respiratory Immune System Shares Many Features with the Intestinal Immune System
    • The Skin Is a Unique Barrier Immune System
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 14: The Adaptive Immune Response in Space and Time
  • Immune Cells in Healthy Tissue: Homeostasis
    • Naïve Lymphocytes Circulate between Secondary and Tertiary Lymphoid Tissues
    • Extravasation Is Driven by Sequential Activation of Surface Molecules
    • Naïve Lymphocytes Browse for Antigen along the Reticular Network of Secondary Lymphoid Organs
  • Immune Cell Response to Antigen: The Innate Immune Response
    • Innate Immune Cells Are Activated by Antigen Binding to Pattern Recognition Receptors
    • Antigen Travels in Two Different Forms to Secondary Lymphoid Tissue via Afferent Lymphatics
    • Antigen-Presenting Cells Presenting Processed Antigen Travel to the T-Cell Zones of Secondary Lymphoid Tissue
    • Unprocessed Antigen Travels to the B-Cell Zones
    • Blood-Borne Antigen Is Captured by Specialized APCs at the Marginal Zone of the Spleen
  • First Contact between Antigen and Lymphocytes
    • Naïve CD4+ T Cells Arrest Their Movements after Engaging Antigens
    • B Cells Seek Help from CD4+ T Cells at the Border between the Follicle and Paracortex of the Lymph Node
    • Dynamic Imaging Adds New Perspectives on B- and T-Cell Behavior in Germinal Centers
    • CD8+ T Cells Are Activated in the Lymph Node via a Multicellular Interaction
    • A Summary of the Timing of a Primary Response
    • Differentiation into Central Memory T Cells Begins Early in the Primary Response
    • The Immune Response Contracts within 10 to 14 Days
  • The Effector and Memory Cell Response
    • Activated Lymphocytes Exit the Lymph Node and Recirculate through Various Tissues
    • Chemokine Receptors and Adhesion Molecules Regulate Homing of Memory and Effector Lymphocytes to Peripheral Tissues
  • The Immune Response: Case Studies
    • CD8+ T-Cell Response to Infection with Toxoplasma gondii
    • Resident Memory T-Cell Response to Herpes Simplex Virus Infection
    • Host Immune Cell Response to a Tissue Graft
    • Dendritic Cell Contribution to Listeria Infection
    • T-Cell Response to Tumors
    • Regulatory T Cells Inhibit the Immune Response in Multiple Ways
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 15: Allergy, Hypersensitivities, and Chronic Inflammation
  • Allergies: Type I Hypersensitivity
    • IgE Antibodies Are Responsible for Type I Hypersensitivity
    • Many Allergens Can Elicit a Type I Response
    • IgE Antibodies Act by Binding Antigen, Resulting in the Cross-Linking of Fcε Receptors
    • IgE Receptor Signaling Is Tightly Regulated
    • Granulocytes Produce Molecules Responsible for Type I Hypersensitivity Symptoms
    • Type I Hypersensitivities Are Characterized by Both Early and Late Responses
    • There Are Several Categories of Type I Hypersensitivity Reactions
    • Susceptibility to Type I Hypersensitivity Reactions Is Influenced by Both Environmental Factors and Genetics
    • Diagnostic Tests and Treatments Are Available for Allergic Reactions
    • Why Did Allergic Responses Evolve?
  • Antibody-Mediated (Type II) Hypersensitivity
    • Transfusion Reactions Are an Example of Type II Hypersensitivity
    • Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn Is Caused by Type II Reactions
    • Hemolytic Anemia Can Be Drug Induced
  • Immune Complex–Mediated (Type III) Hypersensitivity
    • Immune Complexes Can Damage Various Tissues
    • Immune Complex–Mediated Hypersensitivity Can Resolve Spontaneously
    • Auto-Antigens Can Be Involved in Immune Complex–Mediated Reactions
    • Arthus Reactions Are Localized Type III Hypersensitivity Reactions
  • Delayed-Type (Type IV) Hypersensitivity
    • The Initiation of a Type IV DTH Response Involves Sensitization by Antigen
    • The Effector Phase of a Classical DTH Response Is Induced by Second Exposure to a Sensitizing Antigen
    • The DTH Reaction Can Be Detected by a Skin Test
    • Contact Dermatitis Is a Type IV Hypersensitivity Response
  • Chronic Inflammation
    • Infections Can Cause Chronic Inflammation
    • There Are Noninfectious Causes of Chronic Inflammation
    • Obesity Is Associated with Chronic Inflammation
    • Chronic Inflammation Can Cause Systemic Disease
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 16: Tolerance, Autoimmunity, and Transplantation
  • Establishment and Maintenance of Tolerance
    • Antigen Sequestration, or Evasion, Is One Means to Protect Self Antigens from Attack
    • Central Tolerance Processes Occur in Primary Lymphoid Organs
    • Cells That Mediate Peripheral Tolerance Are Generated Outside Primary Lymphoid Organs
    • Multiple Immune Cell Types Work in the Periphery to Inhibit Anti-Self Responses
  • Autoimmunity
    • Some Autoimmune Diseases Target Specific Organs
    • Some Autoimmune Diseases Are Systemic
    • Both Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors Can Favor Susceptibility to Autoimmune Disease
    • What Causes Autoimmunity?
    • Treatments for Autoimmune Disease Range from General Immune Suppression to Targeted Immunotherapy
  • Transplantation Immunology
    • Demand for Transplants Is High, but Organ Supplies Remain Low
    • Antigenic Similarity between Donor and Recipient Improves Transplant Success
    • Some Organs Are More Amenable to Transplantation Than Others
    • Matching Donor and Recipient Involves Prior Assessment of Histocompatibility
    • Allograft Rejection Follows the Rules of Immune Specificity and Memory
    • Graft Rejection Takes a Predictable Clinical Course
    • Immunosuppressive Therapy Can Be Either General or Target-Specific
    • Immune Tolerance to Allografts Is Favored in Certain Instances
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 17: Infectious Diseases and Vaccines
  • The Importance of Barriers and Vectors in Infectious Disease
  • The Link between Location and Immune Effector Mechanism
    • Mucosal or Barrier Infections Are Typically Controlled by TH2-Type Responses
    • Extracellular Pathogens Must Be Recognized and Attacked Using Extracellular Tools
    • Mechanisms That Recognize Infected Host Cells Are Required to Combat Intracellular Infections
  • Viral Infections
    • The Antiviral Innate Response Provides Key Instructions for the Later Adaptive Response
    • Many Viruses Are Neutralized by Antibodies
    • Cell-Mediated Immunity is Important for Viral Control and Clearance
    • Viruses Employ Several Strategies to Evade Host Defense Mechanisms
    • The Imprinting of a Memory Response Can Influence Susceptibility to Future Viral Infection
  • Bacterial Infections
    • Immune Responses to Extracellular and Intracellular Bacteria Differ
    • Bacteria Can Evade Host Defense Mechanisms at Several Different Stages
  • Parasitic Infections
    • Protozoan Parasites Are a Diverse Set of Unicellular Eukaryotes
    • Parasitic Worms (Helminths) Typically Generate Weak Immune Responses
  • Fungal Infections
    • Innate Immunity Controls Most Fungal Infections
    • Immunity against Fungal Pathogens Can Be Acquired
  • Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases
    • Some Noteworthy New Infectious Diseases Have Appeared Recently
    • Diseases May Re-emerge for Various Reasons
  • Vaccines
    • Basic Research and Rational Design Advance Vaccine Development
    • Protective Immunity Can Be Achieved by Active or Passive Immunization
    • There Are Several Vaccine Strategies, Each with Unique Advantages and Challenges
    • Adding a Conjugate or Multivalent Component Can Improve Vaccine Immunogenicity
    • Adjuvants Are Included to Enhance the Immune Response to a Vaccine
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 18: Immunodeficiency Diseases
  • Primary Immunodeficiencies
    • Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases Are Often Detected Early in Life
    • Combined Immunodeficiencies Disrupt Adaptive Immunity
    • B-Cell Immunodeficiencies Exhibit Depressed Production of One or More Antibody Isotypes
    • Disruptions to Innate Immune Components May Also Impact Adaptive Responses
    • Complement Deficiencies Are Relatively Common
    • NK-Cell Deficiencies Increase Susceptibility to Viral Infections and Cancer
    • Immunodeficiency Disorders That Disrupt Immune Regulation Can Manifest as Autoimmunity
    • Immunodeficiency Disorders Are Treated by Replacement Therapy
    • Animal Models of Immunodeficiency Have Been Used to Study Basic Immune Function
  • Secondary Immunodeficiencies
    • Secondary Immunodeficiencies May Be Caused by a Variety of Factors
    • HIV/AIDS Has Claimed Millions of Lives Worldwide
    • The Retrovirus HIV-1 Is the Causative Agent of AIDS
    • HIV-1 is Spread by Intimate Contact with Infected Body Fluids
    • In Vitro Studies Have Revealed the Structure and Life Cycle of HIV
    • HIV Variants with Preference for CCR5 or CXCR4 Coreceptors Play Different Roles in Infection
    • Infection with HIV Leads to Gradual Impairment of Immune Function
    • Changes over Time Lead to Progression to AIDS
    • Antiretroviral Therapy Inhibits HIV Replication, Disease Progression, and Infection of Others
    • A Vaccine May Be the Only Way to Stop the HIV/AIDS Pandemic
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 19: Cancer and the Immune System
  • Terminology and the Formation of Cancer
    • Accumulated DNA Alterations or Translocation Can Induce Cancer
    • Genes Associated with Cancer Control Cell Proliferation and Survival
    • Malignant Transformation Involves Multiple Steps
  • Tumor Antigens
    • Tumor-Specific Antigens Contain Unique Sequences
    • Tumor-Associated Antigens Are Normal Cellular Proteins with Unique Expression Patterns
  • The Immune Response to Cancer
    • Immunoediting Can Both Protect Against and Promote Tumor Growth
    • Innate and Adaptive Pathways Participate in Cancer Detection and Eradication
    • Some Immune Response Elements Can Promote Cancer Survival
    • Tumor Cells Evolve to Evade Immune Recognition and Apoptosis
  • Anticancer Immunotherapies
    • Monoclonal Antibodies Can Be Used to Direct the Immune Response to Tumor Cells
    • Tumor-Specific T Cells Can Be Expanded, or Even Created
    • Therapeutic Vaccines May Enhance the Antitumor Immune Response
    • Manipulation of Comodulatory Signals, Using Checkpoint Blockade
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Chapter 20: Experimental Systems and Methods
  • Antibody Generation
    • Polyclonal Antibodies Are Secreted by Multiple Clones of Antigen-Specific B Cells
    • A Monoclonal Antibody Is the Product of a Single Stimulated B Cell
    • Monoclonal Antibodies Can Be Modified for Use in the Laboratory or the Clinic
  • Immunoprecipitation- and Agglutination-Based Techniques
    • Immunoprecipitation Can Be Performed in Solution
    • Immunoprecipitation of Soluble Antigens Can Be Performed in Gel Matrices
    • Immunoprecipitation Enables Isolation of Specific Molecules from Cell and Tissue Extracts
    • Hemagglutination Reactions Can Be Used to Detect Any Antigen Conjugated to the Surface of Red Blood Cells
    • Hemagglutination Inhibition Reactions Are Used to Detect the Presence of Viruses and of Antiviral Antibodies
    • Bacterial Agglutination Can Be Used to Detect Antibodies to Bacteria
  • Antibody Assays Based on Molecules Bound to Solid-Phase Supports
    • Radioimmunoassays Are Used to Measure the Concentrations of Biologically Relevant Proteins and Hormones in Body Fluids
    • ELISAs Use Antibodies or Antigens Covalently Bound to Enzymes
    • ELISPOT Assays Measure Molecules Secreted by Individual Cells
    • Western Blotting Is an Assay That Can Identify a Specific Protein in a Complex Protein Mixture
  • Methods to Determine the Affinity of Antigen-Antibody Interactions
    • Equilibrium Dialysis Can Be Used to Measure Antibody Affinity for Antigen
    • Surface Plasmon Resonance Is Now Commonly Used for Measurements of Antibody Affinity
  • Antibody-Mediated Microscopic Visualization of Cells and Subcellular Structures
    • Immunocytochemistry and Immunohistochemistry Use Enzyme-Conjugated Antibodies to Create Images of Fixed Tissues
    • Immunoelectron Microscopy Uses Gold Beads to Visualize Antibody-Bound Antigens
  • Immunofluorescence-Based Imaging Techniques
    • Fluorescence Can Be Used to Visualize Cells and Molecules
    • Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy Provides Three-Dimensional Images of Extraordinary Clarity
    • Multiphoton Fluorescence Microscopy Is a Variation of Confocal Microscopy
    • Intravital Imaging Allows Observation of Immune Responses in Vivo
    • Visualization and Analysis of DNA Sequences in Intact Chromatin
  • Flow Cytometry and Cell Sorting
    • The Flow Cytometer Measures Scattered and Fluorescent Light from Cells Flowing Past a Laser Beam
    • Sophisticated Software Allows the Investigator to Identify Individual Cell Populations within a Sample
    • Flow Cytometers and Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorters Have Important Clinical Applications
    • The Analysis of Multicolor Fluorescence Data Has Required the Development of Increasingly Sophisticated Software
    • CyTOF Uses Antibodies to Harness the Power of Mass Spectrometry
    • Magnets Can Be Used in a Gentle, Sterile Method for Sorting Cells
  • Cell Cycle Analysis
    • Tritiated Thymidine Uptake Was One of the First Methods Used to Assess Cell Division
    • Colorimetric Assays for Cell Division Are Rapid and Eliminate the Use of Radioactive Isotopes
    • Bromodeoxyuridine-Based Assays for Cell Division Use Antibodies to Detect Newly Synthesized DNA
    • Propidium Iodide Enables Analysis of the Cell Cycle Status of Cell Populations
    • Carboxyfluorescein Succinimidyl Ester Can Be Used to Follow Cell Division
  • Assays of Cell Death
    • The 51Cr Release Assay Was the First Assay Used to Measure Cell Death
    • Fluorescently Labeled Annexin A5 Measures Phosphatidylserine in the Outer Lipid Envelope of Apoptotic Cells
    • The TUNEL Assay Measures Apoptotically Generated DNA Fragmentation
    • Caspase Assays Measure the Activity of Enzymes Involved in Apoptosis
  • Analysis of Chromatin Structure
    • Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Experiments Characterize Protein-DNA Interactions
    • Chromosome Conformation Capture Technologies Analyze Long-Range Chromosomal DNA Interactions
  • CRISPR-Cas9
  • Whole-Animal Experimental Systems
    • Animal Research Is Subject to Federal Guidelines That Protect Nonhuman Research Species
    • Inbred Strains Reduce Experimental Variation
    • Congenic Strains Are Used to Study the Effects of Particular Gene Loci on Immune Responses
    • Adoptive Transfer Experiments Allow in Vivo Examination of Isolated Cell Populations
    • Transgenic Animals Carry Genes That Have Been Artificially Introduced
    • Knock-in and Knockout Technologies Replace an Endogenous with a Nonfunctional or Engineered Gene Copy
    • The Cre/lox System Enables Inducible Gene Deletion in Selected Tissues
  • References
  • Study Questions
• Appendix I: CD Antigens
• Appendix II: Cytokines and Associated JAK-STAT Signaling Molecules
• Appendix III: Chemokines and Chemokine Receptors
• Glossary
• Answers to Study Questions
• Index

UM RAFBÆKUR Á HEIMKAUP.IS

Bókahillan þín er þitt svæði og þar eru bækurnar þínar geymdar. Þú kemst í bókahilluna þína hvar og hvenær sem er í tölvu eða snjalltæki. Einfalt og þægilegt!

Rafbók til eignar
Rafbók til eignar þarf að hlaða niður á þau tæki sem þú vilt nota innan eins árs frá því bókin er keypt.

Þú kemst í bækurnar hvar sem er
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Auðvelt að fletta og leita
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Glósur og yfirstrikanir
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Hvað viltu sjá? / Þú ræður hvernig síðan lítur út
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Fleiri góðir kostir
- Þú getur prentað síður úr bókinni (innan þeirra marka sem útgefandinn setur)
- Möguleiki á tengingu við annað stafrænt og gagnvirkt efni, svo sem myndbönd eða spurningar úr efninu
- Auðvelt að afrita og líma efni/texta fyrir t.d. heimaverkefni eða ritgerðir
- Styður tækni sem hjálpar nemendum með sjón- eða heyrnarskerðingu