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• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• About the Author
• About the Media Author
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Brief Contents
• Contents
• 1. Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
  • 1.1. How to Succeed in Your Anatomy and Physiology Course
    • How to Develop Study Skills
    • How to Make the Best Use of Class and Lab Time
    • How to Use This Book and Its Associated Materials
  • 1.2. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
    • Characteristics of Living Organisms
    • Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems
    • Types of Anatomy and Physiology
  • 1.3. The Language of Anatomy and Physiology
    • The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms
    • Regional Terms
    • Planes of Section
  • 1.4. The Organization of the Human Body
    • The Posterior Body Cavity
    • The Anterior Body Cavity
  • 1.5. Core Principles in Anatomy and Physiology
    • Overall Theme: Physiological Processes Operate to Maintain the Body’s Homeostasis
    • Core Principle One: Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis
    • Core Principle Two: Structure and Function Are Related at All Levels of Organization
    • Core Principle Three: Gradients Drive Many Physiological Processes
    • Core Principle Four: Cell-Cell Communication Is Required to Coordinate Body Functions
    • Concept Boost: Putting Anatomical Terms Together
    • Concept Boost: Debunking Some Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis
    • A&P in the Real World: Medical Errors
    • A&P in the Real World: Abdominal Pain
    • A&P in the Real World: Medical Imaging
    • A&P in the Real World: Childbirth, Pitocin, and Positive Feedback Loops
• 2. The Chemistry of Life
  • 2.1. Atoms and Elements
    • Atoms and Atomic Structure
    • Elements in the Periodic Table and the Human Body
    • Isotopes and Radioactivity
  • 2.2. Matter Combined: Mixtures and Chemical Bonds
    • Mixtures
    • Chemical Bonds
    • Ions and Ionic Bonds
    • Covalent Bonds
  • 2.3. Chemical Reactions
    • Chemical Notation
    • Energy and Chemical Reactions
    • Homeostasis and Types of Chemical Reactions
    • Reaction Rates and Enzymes
  • 2.4. Inorganic Compounds: Water, Acids, Bases, and Salts
    • Water
    • Acids and Bases
    • Salts and Electrolytes
  • 2.5. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleotides
    • Monomers and Polymers
    • Carbohydrates
    • Lipids
    • Proteins
    • Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
    • Concept Boost: Determining the Type of Bonds in a Molecule or Compound
    • Concept Boost: Making Sense of the pH Scale
    • A&P in the Real World: Nuclear Medicine
    • A&P in the Real World: Enzyme Deficiencies
    • A&P in the Real World: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Fatty Acids
• 3. The Cell
  • 3.1. Introduction to Cells
    • Basic Processes of Cells
    • Overview of Cell Structure
    • Cell Size and Diversity
  • 3.2. Structure of the Plasma Membrane
    • The Phospholipid Bilayer
    • The Fluid Mosaic Model of the Plasma Membrane
  • 3.3. Transport across the Plasma Membrane
    • Passive Transport Processes
    • Active Transport via Membrane Proteins
    • Consequences of Ion Transport across the Plasma Membrane: Introduction to Electrophysiology
    • Active Transport via Vesicles
  • 3.4. Cytoplasmic Organelles
    • Mitochondria
    • Peroxisomes
    • Ribosomes
    • The Endomembrane System
  • 3.5. The Cytoskeleton
    • Types of Filaments
    • Cellular Extensions
  • 3.6. The Nucleus
    • Nuclear Envelope
    • Chromatin and Chromosomes
    • Nucleoli
  • 3.7. Protein Synthesis
    • Genes and the Genetic Code
    • Transcription
    • Translation
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Protein Synthesis
    • Regulation of Gene Expression
  • 3.8. The Cell Cycle
    • Phases of the Cell Cycle
    • Cell Cycle Control and Cancer
    • Study Boost: Comparing Diffusion and Osmosis
    • Concept Boost: Is Osmosis the Diffusion of Water? Taking a Closer Look
    • Concept Boost: Connecting a DNA Triplet to a Particular Amino Acid
    • The Big Picture of Protein Synthesis
    • A&P in the Real World: Drugs and Membrane Receptors
    • A&P in the Real World: Dehydration, Sports Drinks, and Water
    • A&P in the Real World: Cystic Fibrosis
    • A&P in the Real World: Lysosomal Storage Diseases
    • A&P in the Real World: Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia
    • A&P in the Real World: Toxicity of the “Death Cap” Mushroom
    • A&P in the Real World: Spindle Poisons
• 4. Histology
  • 4.1. Introduction to Tissues
    • Types of Tissues
    • The Extracellular Matrix
    • Cell Junctions
  • 4.2. Epithelial Tissues
    • Components and Classification of Epithelia
    • Covering and Lining Epithelia
    • Glandular Epithelia
  • 4.3. Connective Tissues
    • Connective Tissue Proper
    • Specialized Connective Tissues
  • 4.4. Muscle Tissues
    • Components of Muscle Tissue
    • Types of Muscle Tissue
  • 4.5. Nervous Tissue
  • 4.6. Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Tissues in Organs
  • 4.7. Membranes
    • True Membranes
    • Membrane-like Structures
  • 4.8. Tissue Repair
    • Capacity of Specific Tissues for Tissue Repair
    • Other Factors Affecting Tissue Repair
    • Concept Boost: “But It All Looks Pink!” Part 1
    • Concept Boost: “But It All Looks Pink!” Part 2
    • The Big Picture of Tissues in Organs
    • A&P in the Real World: Marfan Syndrome
    • A&P in the Real World: Carcinogens and Epithelial Tissues
    • A&P in the Real World: Adipose Tissue and Obesity
    • A&P in the Real World: Osteoarthritis and Glucosamine Supplements
    • A&P in the Real World: Friction Rubs
• 5. The Integumentary System
  • 5.1. Overview of the Integumentary System
    • Skin Structure
    • Functions of the Integumentary System
  • 5.2. The Epidermis
    • Keratinocytes
    • Other Cells of the Epidermis
    • Thick and Thin Skin
  • 5.3. The Dermis
    • Papillary Layer
    • Reticular Layer
    • Skin Markings
  • 5.4. Skin Pigmentation
    • Melanin
    • Other Pigments That Affect Skin Color: Carotene and Hemoglobin
    • Skin Color as a Diagnostic Tool
  • 5.5. Accessory Structures of the Integument: Hair, Nails, and Glands
    • Hair
    • Nails
    • Glands
  • 5.6. Pathology of the Skin
    • Burns
    • Skin Cancer
    • Study Boost: Remembering the Strata of the Epidermis
    • Concept Boost: Understanding Epidermal Growth
    • A&P in the Real World: Cellulite
    • A&P in the Real World: Topical Medications
    • A&P in the Real World: Skin Wrinkles
    • A&P in the Real World: Pseudoscience Exposed: Tanning and a “Healthy Tan”
    • A&P in the Real World: Acne
• 6. Bones and Bone Tissue
  • 6.1. Introduction to Bones as Organs
    • Functions of the Skeletal System
    • Bone Structure
  • 6.2. Microscopic Structure of Bone Tissue
    • The Extracellular Matrix of Bone
    • Bone Cells
    • Histology of Bone Tissue
  • 6.3. Bone Formation: Ossification
    • Intramembranous Ossification
    • Endochondral Ossification
  • 6.4. Bone Growth in Length and Width
    • Growth in Length
    • Growth in Width
    • The Role of Hormones in Bone Growth
  • 6.5. Bone Remodeling and Repair
    • Bone Remodeling
    • Bone Repair
    • A&P in the Real World: Bone Marrow Transplantation
    • A&P in the Real World: Osteopetrosis
    • A&P in the Real World: Osteoporosis and Healthy Bone Tissue
    • A&P in the Real World: Achondroplasia
    • A&P in the Real World: Gigantism and Acromegaly
• 7. The Skeletal System
  • 7.1. Overview of the Skeletal System
    • Structure of the Skeleton and Skeletal Cartilages
    • Bone Markings
  • 7.2. The Skull
    • Overview of Skull Structure
    • Cavities of the Skull
    • Fetal Skull
    • Hyoid Bone
  • 7.3. The Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage
    • Overview of the Vertebral Column
    • Structure of the Vertebrae
    • Intervertebral Discs
    • The Thoracic Cage
  • 7.4. Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb
    • The Pectoral Girdle
    • The Humerus
    • Bones of the Forearm: The Radius and Ulna
    • Bones of the Wrist: Carpals
    • Bones of the Hand and Fingers: Metacarpals and Phalanges
  • 7.5. Bones of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
    • The Pelvis and Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
    • The Femur and Patella
    • Bones of the Leg: The Tibia and Fibula
    • Bones of the Ankle and Foot: The Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges
    • Study Boost: Remembering Skull Bones and Vertebrae
    • Study Boost: Remembering Bones of the Upper and Lower Limbs
    • Concept Boost: Understanding How Skull Bones Relate to One Another
    • A&P in the Real World: Forensic Skull Anatomy
    • A&P in the Real World: Vertebral Compression Fractures
    • A&P in the Real World: Herniated Disc
    • A&P in the Real World: The Sternum and CPR
    • A&P in the Real World: Wrist Fractures
• 8. Articulations
  • 8.1. Overview of Joints
    • Functions of Joints
    • Classes of Joints
  • 8.2. Fibrous and Cartilaginous Joints
    • Fibrous Joints
    • Cartilaginous Joints
  • 8.3. Structure of Synovial Joints
    • The Joint Cavity
    • Stabilizing and Supportive Structures
    • Arthritis
  • 8.4. Function of Synovial Joints
    • Functional Classes of Synovial Joints
    • Movements at Synovial Joints
    • Range of Motion
  • 8.5. Types of Synovial Joints
    • Structural Classes of Synovial Joints
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Joint Classifications and Stability versus Mobility
    • Specific Hinge Joints: The Elbow and the Knee
    • Specific Ball-and-Socket Joints: The Shoulder and the Hip
    • Study Boost: Keeping Synovial Joint Movements Straight
    • Concept Boost: Understanding Axes of Motion
    • The Big Picture of Joint Classifications and Stability versus Mobility
    • A&P in the Real World: Epiphyseal Plate Fractures
    • A&P in the Real World: Bursitis
    • A&P in the Real World: Knee Injuries and the Unhappy Triad
    • A&P in the Real World: Shoulder Dislocations
    • A&P in the Real World: Hip Joint Replacement Surgery
• 9. The Muscular System
  • 9.1. Overview of Skeletal Muscles
    • Structure of Skeletal Muscles
    • Naming Muscles
    • Functions of Skeletal Muscles
    • Studying Muscles
  • 9.2. Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Vertebral Column
    • Muscles of Facial Expression
    • Extrinsic Eye Muscles
    • Muscles of the Head and Neck
    • Muscles of the Vertebral Column
  • 9.3. Muscles of the Trunk and Pelvic Floor
    • Muscles of Ventilation
    • Abdominal Muscles
    • Muscles of the Pelvic Diaphragm, Urogenital Diaphragm, and Perineum
  • 9.4. Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb
    • Muscles That Move the Scapula at the Pectoral Girdle
    • Muscles That Move the Arm at the Shoulder Joint
    • Muscles That Move the Forearm and Hand
  • 9.5. Muscles of the Hip and Lower Limb
    • Muscles of the Hip, Thigh, Knee, and Leg
    • Muscles of the Ankle, Foot, and Toes
  • 9.6. Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Muscle Movement
    • Study Boost: How to Tell the Three Types of Levers Apart
    • Concept Boost: Demystifying Muscle Actions
    • The Big Picture of Muscle Movement
    • A&P in the Real World: Muscle Knots
    • A&P in the Real World: Urinary Incontinence and Kegel Exercises
    • A&P in the Real World: Rotator Cuff Injuries
    • A&P in the Real World: Calcaneal Tendon Injuries
• 10. Muscle Tissue and Physiology
  • 10.1. Overview of Muscle Tissue
    • Types of Muscle Tissue
    • Properties of Muscle Cells
    • Structure of Muscle Cells
  • 10.2. Structure and Function of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
    • Structure of the Skeletal Muscle Fiber
    • Structure of the Myofibril
    • Myofilament Arrangement and the Sarcomere
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Skeletal Muscle Structure
    • The Sliding-Filament Mechanism of Contraction
  • 10.3. Skeletal Muscle Fibers as Electrically Excitable Cells
    • Membrane Potentials in Our Cells
    • Action Potentials
  • 10.4. The Process of Skeletal Muscle Contraction and Relaxation
    • The Neuromuscular Junction
    • Skeletal Muscle Contraction
    • Muscle Relaxation
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Skeletal Muscle Contraction and Relaxation
  • 10.5. Energy Sources for Skeletal Muscle
    • Glycolytic Energy Sources
    • Oxidative Energy Sources
  • 10.6. Muscle Tension at the Fiber Level
    • Twitch Contraction
    • Tension Production and the Timing and Frequency of Stimulation
    • The Length-Tension Relationship
    • Classes of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
  • 10.7. Muscle Tension at the Organ Level
    • Motor Units
  • 10.8. Skeletal Muscle Performance
    • Changes Caused by Physical Training
    • Muscular Fatigue
    • Excess Postexercise Oxygen Consumption and the Recovery Period
  • 10.9. Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
    • Smooth Muscle
    • Cardiac Muscle
    • Study Boost: Remembering the Bands of the Sarcomere
    • Concept Boost: How Do Positive Ions Create a Negative Resting Membrane Potential?
    • Concept Boost: Linking a Crossbridge Cycle to the Sliding-Filament Mechanism
    • The Big Picture of Levels of Organization within a Skeletal Muscle
    • The Big Picture of Skeletal Muscle Contraction
    • A&P in the Real World: Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
    • A&P in the Real World: Rigor Mortis
    • A&P in the Real World: Pseudoscience Exposed: Creatine Supplementation
    • A&P in the Real World: Botulism and BOTOX
    • A&P in the Real World: Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness
• 11. Introduction to the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
  • 11.1. Overview of the Nervous System
    • Structural Divisions of the Nervous System
    • Functional Divisions of the Nervous System
  • 11.2. Nervous Tissue
    • Neurons
    • Neuroglia
    • The Myelin Sheath
    • Regeneration of Nervous Tissue
  • 11.3. Electrophysiology of Neurons
    • Principles of Electrophysiology
    • Local Potentials
    • Action Potentials
    • The Refractory Period
    • Local and Action Potentials Compared
    • Propagation of Action Potentials
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Action Potentials
  • 11.4. Neuronal Synapses
    • Overview of Neuronal Synapses
    • Electrical Synapses
    • Chemical Synapses
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Chemical Synaptic Transmission
  • 11.5. Neurotransmitters
    • Neurotransmitter Receptors
    • Major Neurotransmitters
    • Neuromodulation
  • 11.6. Functional Groups of Neurons
    • Neuronal Pools
    • Neural Circuits
    • Concept Boost: How Does Myelin Insulate an Axon and Increase Its Speed of Propagation?
    • Concept Boost: Sorting Out the Different Types of Channels and Pumps in the Membrane of a Neuron
    • The Big Picture of Action Potentials
    • The Big Picture of Chemical Synaptic Transmission
    • A&P in the Real World: Poliovirus and Retrograde Axonal Transport
    • A&P in the Real World: Gliomas and Astrocytomas
    • A&P in the Real World: Local Anesthetic Drugs
    • A&P in the Real World: Multiple Sclerosis
    • A&P in the Real World: Arthropod Venom
    • A&P in the Real World: Psychiatric Disorders and Treatments
    • A&P in the Real World: Epileptic Seizures
• 12. The Central Nervous System
  • 12.1. Overview of the Central Nervous System
    • Overview of CNS Functions
    • Basic Structure of the Brain and Spinal Cord
    • Overview of CNS Development
  • 12.2. The Brain
    • The Cerebrum
    • The Diencephalon
    • The Cerebellum
    • The Brainstem
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Major Brain Structures and Their Functions
  • 12.3. Homeostasis Part I: Role of the Brain in Maintenance of Homeostasis
    • Homeostasis of Vital Functions
    • Body Temperature and Feeding
    • Sleep and Wakefulness
  • 12.4. Higher Mental Functions
    • Cognition and Language
    • Learning and Memory
    • Emotion
  • 12.5. Protection of the Brain
    • The Cranial Meninges
    • The Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
    • The Blood Brain Barrier
  • 12.6. The Spinal Cord
    • Protection of the Spinal Cord
    • External Spinal Cord Anatomy
    • Internal Spinal Cord Anatomy
  • 12.7. Sensation Part I: Role of the CNS in Sensation
    • General Somatic Senses
    • Introduction to the Special Senses
  • 12.8. Movement Part I: Role of the CNS in Voluntary Movement
    • Motor Pathways from the Brain through the Spinal Cord
    • Role of the Brain in Voluntary Movement
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of CNS Control of Voluntary Movement
    • Concept Boost: Where Exactly Is the Blood Brain Barrier?
    • The Big Picture of Brain Anatomy
    • The Big Picture of Major Brain Structures and Their Functions
    • The Big Picture of CNS Control of Voluntary Movement
    • A&P in the Real World: Pseudoscience Exposed: The Myth of Brain Differences between the Sexes
    • A&P in the Real World: Locked-In Syndrome
    • A&P in the Real World: Fever
    • A&P in the Real World: States of Altered Consciousness Mimicking Sleep
    • A&P in the Real World: Dementia
    • A&P in the Real World: Aphasias
    • A&P in the Real World: Infectious Meningitis
    • A&P in the Real World: Epidural Anesthesia and Lumbar Punctures
    • A&P in the Real World: Phantom Limb Pain
    • A&P in the Real World: Parkinson’s Disease
• 13. The Peripheral Nervous System
  • 13.1. Overview of the Peripheral Nervous System
    • Divisions of the PNS
    • Overview of Peripheral Nerves and Associated Ganglia
    • Functional Overview of the PNS
  • 13.2. The Cranial Nerves
    • The Sensory Cranial Nerves
    • The Motor Cranial Nerves
    • The Mixed Cranial Nerves
  • 13.3. The Spinal Nerves
    • Structure of Spinal Nerves and Spinal Nerve Plexuses
    • Cervical Plexuses
    • Brachial Plexuses
    • Thoracic Spinal Nerves
    • Lumbar Plexuses
    • Sacral Plexuses
    • Summary of the Distribution of Spinal Nerve Branches
  • 13.4. Sensation Part II: Role of the PNS in Sensation
    • Sensory Receptors
    • Sensory Neurons
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of the Detection and Perception of Somatic Sensation by the
  • 13.5. Movement Part II: Role of the PNS in Movement
    • From CNS to PNS: Motor Output
    • The Role of Lower Motor Neurons
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Control of Movement by the Nervous System
  • 13.6. Reflex Arcs: Integration of Sensory and Motor Function
    • Reflex Arcs
    • The Role of Stretch Receptors in Skeletal Muscles
    • Types of Reflexes
    • Sensory and Motor Neuron Disorders
    • Study Boost: Remembering the Cranial Nerves
    • Concept Boost: Sorting Out the Brachial Plexus
    • The Big Picture of Detection and Interpretation of Somatic Sensation by the Nervous System
    • The Big Picture of Control of Movement by the Nervous System
    • A&P in the Real World: Trigeminal Neuralgia
    • A&P in the Real World: Bell’s Palsy
    • A&P in the Real World: A Hiccups Cure That Really Works
    • A&P in the Real World: Capsaicin
    • A&P in the Real World: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
• 14. The Autonomic Nervous System and Homeostasis
  • 14.1. Overview of the Autonomic Nervous System
    • Functions of the ANS and Visceral Reflex Arcs
    • Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
    • Divisions of the ANS
  • 14.2. The Sympathetic Nervous System
    • Gross and Microscopic Anatomy of the Sympathetic Nervous System
    • Sympathetic Neurotransmitters and Receptors
    • Effects of the Sympathetic Nervous System on Target Cells
    • Pharmacology and Sympathetic Nervous System Receptors
  • 14.3. The Parasympathetic Nervous System
    • Gross and Microscopic Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Nervous System
    • Parasympathetic Neurotransmitters and Receptors
    • Effects of the Parasympathetic Nervous System on Target Cells
  • 14.4. Homeostasis Part II: PNS Maintenance of Homeostasis
    • Interactions of Autonomic Divisions
    • Autonomic Tone
    • Summary of Nervous System Control of Homeostasis
    • Study Boost: Remembering the Difference between Preganglionic and Postganglionic Neurons
    • Concept Boost: Understanding the Different Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Sy
    • A&P in the Real World: Pseudoscience Exposed: The Sympathetic Nervous System and Weight Loss Supplem
    • A&P in the Real World: Side Effects of Anticholinergic Drugs
    • A&P in the Real World: Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome
• 15. The Special Senses
  • 15.1. Overview of the Special Senses
    • Comparison of the General and Special Senses
    • Sensory Transduction
  • 15.2. Olfaction
    • Structures of Olfaction
    • Physiology of Olfaction
  • 15.3. Gustation
    • Structures of Gustation: Taste Buds
    • Physiology of Gustation
    • The Gustatory Pathway
  • 15.4. Anatomy of the Eye
    • Accessory Structures of the Eye
    • The Eyeball
  • 15.5. Physiology of Vision
    • Principles of Light
    • Focusing Light on the Retina
    • Errors of Refraction: Presbyopia, Hyperopia, and Myopia
    • Photoreceptors and the Retina
    • The Visual Pathway
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Vision
  • 15.6. Anatomy of the Ear
    • Outer Ear
    • Middle Ear
    • Inner Ear
  • 15.7. Physiology of Hearing
    • Principles of Sound
    • Transmission of Sound to the Inner Ear
    • Processing of Sound in the Inner Ear
    • The Auditory Pathway
    • Hearing Loss
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Hearing
  • 15.8. Vestibular Sensation
    • Utricle and Saccule: Static Equilibrium and Linear Acceleration
    • Semicircular Ducts: Rotational Equilibrium
    • The Vestibular Sensation Pathway
  • 15.9. How the Special Senses Work Together
    • Concept Boost: Understanding Accommodation
    • Concept Boost: How Inertia Influences Movement of the Otolithic Membrane and Endolymph
    • The Big Picture of Vision
    • The Big Picture of Hearing
    • A&P in the Real World: Anosmia
    • A&P in the Real World: Cataracts
    • A&P in the Real World: Glaucoma
    • A&P in the Real World: Color Blindness
    • A&P in the Real World: Otitis Media
    • A&P in the Real World: Tinnitus
    • A&P in the Real World: Cochlear Implants
    • A&P in the Real World: Motion Sickness
• 16. The Endocrine System
  • 16.1. Overview of the Endocrine System
    • Comparison of the Endocrine and Nervous Systems
    • Paracrine and Autocrine Signals
    • Overview of the Endocrine Organs
    • Hormones
    • Regulation of Hormone Secretion
  • 16.2. The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland
    • Structure of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
    • Hormones of the Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary
    • Functional Relationship of the Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary
  • 16.3. The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
    • Structure of the Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
    • Thyroid Hormones: Metabolic Regulators
    • Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin: Calcium Ion Homeostasis
  • 16.4. The Adrenal Glands
    • Structure of the Adrenal Glands
    • Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
    • Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla: Messengers of the Sympathetic Nervous System
  • 16.5. The Endocrine Pancreas
    • Structure of the Pancreas
    • Hormones of the Endocrine Pancreas: Glucose Homeostasis
    • Blood Glucose Regulation
  • 16.6. Other Endocrine Glands and Hormone- Secreting Tissues
    • The Thymus: Thymosin and Thymopoietin
    • The Gonads: Sex Hormones
    • The Pineal Gland: Melatonin
    • Adipose Tissue: Leptin
    • The Heart: Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
    • The Kidneys: Erythropoietin
  • 16.7. Three Examples of Endocrine Control of Physiological Variables
    • Hormonal Control of Fluid Homeostasis
    • Hormonal Control of Metabolic Homeostasis
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of the Hormonal Response to Stress
    • Concept Boost: Understanding the Relationship between Negative Feedback Loops and Thyroid Function
    • The Big Picture of the Hormonal Response to Stress
    • A&P in the Real World: Paraneoplastic Syndrome
    • A&P in the Real World: Pseudoscience Exposed: Human Growth Hormone and the “Fountain of Youth”
    • A&P in the Real World: Calcitonin, Parathyroid Hormone, and Osteoporosis
    • A&P in the Real World: HPA Axis Suppression and Corticosteroid Therapy
    • A&P in the Real World: Pseudoscience Exposed: Leptin and Obesity
• 17. The Cardiovascular System I: The Heart
  • 17.1. Overview of the Heart
    • Location and Basic Structure of the Heart
    • Functions of the Heart
  • 17.2. Heart Anatomy and Blood Flow Pathway
    • The Pericardium, Heart Wall, and Heart Skeleton
    • The Great Vessels, Chambers, and Valves of the Heart
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Blood Flow through the Heart
    • The Coronary Circulation
  • 17.3. Cardiac Muscle Tissue Anatomy and Electrophysiology
    • Histology of Cardiac Muscle Tissue and Cells
    • Cardiac Electrophysiology: Pacemaker Cells and the Cardiac Conduction System
    • Cardiac Electrophysiology: Contractile Cells
    • The Electrocardiogram
  • 17.4. Mechanical Physiology of the Heart: The Cardiac Cycle
    • The Relationship between Pressure Changes, Blood Flow, and Valve Function
    • Heart Sounds
    • Events of the Cardiac Cycle
    • Connecting the Electrical and Mechanical Events in the Heart
  • 17.5. Cardiac Output and Regulation
    • Determination of Cardiac Output
    • Factors That Influence Stroke Volume
    • Factors That Influence Heart Rate
    • Regulation of Cardiac Output
    • Heart Failure
    • Study Boost: Revisiting Electrophysiology
    • Concept Boost: Deconstructing the Cardiac Cycle Diagram
    • Concept Boost: Understanding How Changes in Preload, Contractility, and Afterload Affect Stroke Volu
    • The Big Picture of Blood Flow through the Heart
    • A&P in the Real World: Thoracotomy
    • A&P in the Real World: Cardiac Tamponade
    • A&P in the Real World: Valvular Heart Diseases
    • A&P in the Real World: Dysrhythmias
    • A&P in the Real World: Heart Murmurs and Extra Heart Sounds
    • A&P in the Real World: Ventricular Hypertrophy
• 18. The Cardiovascular System II: The Blood Vessels
  • 18.1. Overview of Arteries and Veins
    • Structure and Function of Arteries and Veins
    • Vascular Anastomoses
  • 18.2. Physiology of Blood Flow
    • Introduction to Hemodynamics
    • Factors That Determine Blood Pressure
    • Blood Pressure in Different Portions of the Circulation
  • 18.3. Maintenance of Blood Pressure
    • Short-Term Maintenance of Blood Pressure
    • Long-Term Maintenance of Blood Pressure by the Endocrine and Urinary Systems
    • Summary of Blood Pressure Maintenance
    • Disorders of Blood Pressure: Hypertension and Hypotension
  • 18.4. Capillaries and Tissue Perfusion
    • Capillary Structure and Function
    • Blood Flow through Capillary Beds
    • Tissue Perfusion in Special Circuits
  • 18.5. Capillary Pressures and Water Movement
    • Pressures at Work in a Capillary
    • Capillary Net Filtration Pressure
    • Edema
  • 18.6. Anatomy of the Systemic Arteries
    • Arteries of the Head and Neck
    • Arteries of the Thorax
    • Arteries of the Upper Limb
    • Arteries of the Lower Limb
    • Pulse Points
  • 18.7. Anatomy of the Systemic Veins
    • Veins of the Head and Neck
    • Veins of the Thorax and Abdomen
    • Veins of the Upper Limb
    • Veins of the Lower Limb
  • 18.8. Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Blood Vessel Anatomy
    • Study Boost: Another Way to Think about Hydrostatic and Osmotic Pressures
    • Concept Boost: A Closer Look at Cross-Sectional Area and Velocity
    • Concept Boost: Taking a Closer Look at Systolic and Diastolic Pressures
    • The Big Picture of Systemic Blood Flow in the Body
    • A&P in the Real World: Atherosclerosis
    • A&P in the Real World: Varicose Veins
    • A&P in the Real World: Vasovagal Syncope
    • A&P in the Real World: Cerebrovascular Accident
    • A&P in the Real World: Drugs and the Hepatic Portal System
    • A&P in the Real World: Vein Grafting
• 19. Blood
  • 19.1. Overview of Blood
    • Overview of Blood Functions
    • Plasma
  • 19.2. Erythrocytes and Oxygen Transport
    • Erythrocyte Structure
    • Lifespan of an Erythrocyte
    • Anemia
  • 19.3. Leukocytes and Immune Function
    • Granulocytes
    • Agranulocytes
    • Leukocyte Formation: Leukopoiesis
  • 19.4. Platelets
    • Platelet Characteristics
    • Platelet Formation
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Formed Elements
  • 19.5. Hemostasis
    • Hemostasis Part 1: Vascular Spasm
    • Hemostasis Part 2: Platelet Plug Formation
    • Hemostasis Part 3: Coagulation
    • Hemostasis Part 4: Clot Retraction
    • Hemostasis Part 5: Thrombolysis
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Hemostasis
    • Regulation of Clotting
    • Disorders of Clotting
  • 19.6. Blood Typing and Matching
    • Blood Typing
    • Blood Transfusions
    • Concept Boost: Making Sense of the Coagulation Cascade
    • Concept Boost: What about the Donor’s Antibodies?
    • The Big Picture of Formed Elements
    • The Big Picture of Hemostasis
    • A&P in the Real World: Cirrhosis
    • A&P in the Real World: Complete Blood Count
    • A&P in the Real World: Leukemias
    • A&P in the Real World: Anticlot Medications
    • A&P in the Real World: Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn, or Erythroblastosis Fetalis
• 20. The Lymphatic System and Immunity
  • 20.1. Structure and Function of the Lymphatic System
    • Functions of the Lymphatic System
    • Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation
    • Lymphoid Tissues and Organs
  • 20.2. Overview of the Immune System
    • Types of Immunity
    • Surface Barriers
    • Overview of Cells and Proteins of the Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems
    • How the Lymphatic and Immune Systems Work Together
  • 20.3. Innate Immunity: Internal Defenses
    • Cells of Innate Immunity
    • Antimicrobial Proteins
    • Inflammatory Response
    • Fever
  • 20.4. Adaptive Immunity: Cell-Mediated Immunity
    • Antigens
    • T Cell Response to Antigen Exposure
    • Effects of T Cells
    • Organ and Tissue Transplantation and Rejection
  • 20.5. Adaptive Immunity: Antibody-Mediated Immunity
    • Phase 1: B Cell Activation, Clonal Selection, and Differentiation
    • Phase 2: Antibodies and Their Effects
    • Phase 3: Immunological Memory
  • 20.6. Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of the Immune Response
    • Scenario 1: The Common Cold
    • Scenario 2: Bacterial Infection
    • Scenario 3: Cancer
    • Pathogens That Evade the Immune Response
  • 20.7. Disorders of the Immune System
    • Hypersensitivity Disorders
    • Type I: Immediate Hypersensitivity
    • Type II: Antibody-Mediated Hypersensitivity
    • Type III: Immune Complex-Mediated Hypersensitivity
    • Type IV: Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity
    • Immunodeficiency Disorders
    • Autoimmune Disorders
    • Concept Boost: Why Do We Need Both Class I and Class II MHC Molecules?
    • The Big Picture of the Immune Response to the Common Cold
    • The Big Picture of the Immune Response to a Bacterial Infection
    • The Big Picture of the Immune Response to Cancer Cells
    • A&P in the Real World: Lymphedema
    • A&P in the Real World: How Pathogens Can Evade Surface Barriers
    • A&P in the Real World: Anti-inflammatory Medications
    • A&P in the Real World: Pseudoscience Exposed: The Myth of Vaccines and Autism
    • A&P in the Real World: Complete Blood Count with Differential
    • A&P in the Real World: Treatments for Allergies
    • A&P in the Real World: The Tuberculin Skin Test
• 21. The Respiratory System
  • 21.1. Overview of the Respiratory System
    • Anatomy of the Respiratory System: An Overview
    • Basic Functions of the Respiratory System
  • 21.2. Anatomy of the Respiratory System
    • The Nose and Nasal Cavity
    • The Pharynx
    • The Larynx
    • The Trachea
    • The Bronchial Tree
    • Alveoli and the Respiratory Membrane
    • The Lungs and Pleurae
  • 21.3. Pulmonary Ventilation
    • The Pressure-Volume Relationship
    • The Process of Pulmonary Ventilation
    • Physical Factors Influencing Pulmonary Ventilation
    • Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities
  • 21.4. Gas Exchange
    • The Behavior of Gases
    • Pulmonary Gas Exchange
    • Factors Affecting Efficiency of Pulmonary Gas Exchange
    • Tissue Gas Exchange
    • Factors Affecting Efficiency of Tissue Gas Exchange
  • 21.5. Gas Transport through the Blood
    • Oxygen Transport
    • Carbon Dioxide Transport
  • 21.6. Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Respiration
  • 21.7. Neural Control of Ventilation
    • Control of the Basic Pattern of Ventilation
    • Control of the Rate and Depth of Ventilation
  • 21.8. Diseases of the Respiratory System
    • Restrictive Lung Diseases
    • Obstructive Lung Diseases
    • Study Boost: Relating Ventilation and Blood pH
    • Concept Boost: Making Sense of the Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve
    • Concept Boost: How Does a Buffer Work?
    • The Big Picture of Pulmonary Ventilation
    • The Big Picture of Respiration
    • A&P in the Real World: Smoker’s Cough
    • A&P in the Real World: Tuberculosis
    • A&P in the Real World: Pleuritis and Pleural Friction Rub
    • A&P in the Real World: Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome
    • A&P in the Real World: Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy
    • A&P in the Real World: V/Q Mismatch
    • A&P in the Real World: Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
    • A&P in the Real World: High-Altitude Acclimatization
• 22. The Digestive System
  • 22.1. Overview of the Digestive System
    • Basic Digestive Functions and Processes
    • Organization of the Digestive System
    • Regulation of Motility by the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
  • 22.2. The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
    • Structure of the Oral Cavity
    • The Teeth and Mastication
    • The Tongue
    • The Salivary Glands
    • The Pharynx
    • The Esophagus
    • Swallowing
  • 22.3. The Stomach
    • Gross Anatomy of the Stomach
    • Histology of the Stomach
    • Functions of the Stomach
  • 22.4. The Small Intestine
    • Divisions of the Small Intestine
    • Structure and Functions of the Small Intestine
    • Motility of the Small Intestine
  • 22.5. The Large Intestine
    • Gross Anatomy of the Large Intestine
    • Histology of the Large Intestine
    • Bacteria in the Large Intestine
    • Motility of the Large Intestine and Defecation
  • 22.6. The Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder
    • The Pancreas
    • The Liver and Gallbladder
  • 22.7. Nutrient Digestion and Absorption
    • Overview of Digestion and Absorption
    • Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
    • Digestion and Absorption of Proteins
    • Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
    • Digestion and Absorption of Nucleic Acids
    • Absorption of Water, Electrolytes, and Vitamins
  • 22.8. Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Digestion
    • Study Boost: An Analogy to Understand Emulsification
    • Concept Boost: Understanding Absorption in the Alimentary Canal
    • The Big Picture of Digestion
    • A&P in the Real World: Peritonitis
    • A&P in the Real World: Dental Caries
    • A&P in the Real World: Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)
    • A&P in the Real World: Vomiting
    • A&P in the Real World: Appendicitis
    • A&P in the Real World: Pseudoscience Exposed: Do We Really Need to “Detox”?
    • A&P in the Real World: Lactose Intolerance
    • A&P in the Real World: Intrinsic Factor and Vitamin B12 Deficiency
• 23. Metabolism and Nutrition
  • 23.1. Overview of Metabolism and Nutrition
    • Phases of Metabolism: Catabolism and Anabolism
    • Energy Requirements of Metabolic Reactions
    • Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and Phosphorylation
    • Nutrients and ATP Generation
  • 23.2. Glucose Catabolism and ATP Synthesis
    • Overview of Glucose Catabolism and ATP Synthesis
    • Glucose Catabolism Part 1: Glycolysis
    • Intermediate Step: The Fate of Pyruvate
    • Glucose Catabolism Part 2: The Citric Acid Cycle
    • ATP Synthesis: The Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Glucose Catabolism and ATP Synthesis
  • 23.3. Fatty Acid and Amino Acid Catabolism
    • Fatty Acid Catabolism
    • Amino Acid Catabolism
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Nutrient Catabolism
  • 23.4. Anabolic Pathways
    • Glucose Anabolism
    • Fatty Acid Anabolism
    • Amino Acid Anabolism
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Nutrient Anabolism
  • 23.5. Metabolic States and Regulation of Feeding
    • Metabolic States
    • Regulation of Feeding
  • 23.6. The Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
    • Metabolic Rate
    • Heat Exchange between the Body and the Environment
    • Thermoregulation: Body Temperature Regulation
  • 23.7. Nutrition and Body Mass
    • Overview of Nutrients
    • Macronutrients
    • Micronutrients
    • Structural Lipid: Cholesterol
    • Diet and Body Mass
    • Obesity
    • Concept Boost: How Electron Movement Can Be Harnessed to Do Work
    • Concept Boost: Why Do We Breathe?
    • Concept Boost: ATP Yield from Oxidative Catabolism
    • The Big Picture of Glucose Catabolism and Oxidative Phosphorylation
    • The Big Picture of Nutrient Catabolism
    • The Big Picture of Nutrient Anabolism
    • A&P in the Real World: Cyanide and the ETC
    • A&P in the Real World: Phenylketonuria
    • A&P in the Real World: Fatty Liver Disease
    • A&P in the Real World: Fasting and Protein Wasting
    • A&P in the Real World: Pseudoscience Exposed: “Rev” Your Metabolism
    • A&P in the Real World: Pseudoscience Exposed: Vitamin and Mineral Megadoses
• 24. The Urinary System
  • 24.1. Overview of the Urinary System
    • Overview of Urinary System Structures
    • Overview of Kidney Function
  • 24.2. Anatomy of the Kidneys
    • External Anatomy of the Kidneys
    • Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys
    • Blood Supply of the Kidneys
    • Microanatomy of the Kidney: The Nephron and Collecting System
    • Types of Nephrons
  • 24.3. Overview of Renal Physiology
  • 24.4. Renal Physiology I: Glomerular Filtration
    • The Filtration Membrane and the Filtrate
    • The Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
    • Factors That Affect the Glomerular Filtration Rate
    • Renal Failure
  • 24.5. Renal Physiology II: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion
    • Principles of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion
    • Reabsorption and Secretion in the Proximal Tubule
    • Reabsorption in the Nephron Loop
    • Reabsorption and Secretion in the Distal Tubule and Collecting System
    • How Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion Maintain Acid-Base Balance
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion
  • 24.6. Renal Physiology III: Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume
    • Osmolarity of the Filtrate
    • Production of Dilute Urine
    • The Countercurrent Mechanism and the Production of Concentrated Urine
  • 24.7. Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Renal Physiology
  • 24.8. Urine and Renal Clearance
    • Urine Composition and Urinalysis
    • Renal Clearance
  • 24.9. Urine Transport, Storage, and Elimination
    • Anatomy of the Urinary Tract
    • Micturition
  • 24.10. Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Urine Formation, Storage, and Elimination
    • Concept Boost: How Changes in Arteriolar Diameter Influence the GFR
    • Concept Boost: Demystifying the Countercurrent Multiplier
    • The Big Picture of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion
    • The Big Picture of Renal Physiology
    • The Big Picture of Urine Formation, Storage, and Elimination
    • A&P in the Real World: Nephrolithiasis
    • A&P in the Real World: Glomerulonephritis
    • A&P in the Real World: The RAAS, Hypertension, and Renal Disease
    • A&P in the Real World: Glycosuria
    • A&P in the Real World: Diuretics
    • A&P in the Real World: SIADH
    • A&P in the Real World: Interstitial Cystitis
• 25. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis
  • 25.1. Overview of Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis
    • Body Fluids
    • Electrolytes
    • Acids, Bases, and pH
  • 25.2. Fluid Homeostasis
    • Total Body Water
    • Fluid Compartments: Intracellular and Extracellular Fluids
    • Movement of Water between Compartments
    • Water Losses and Gains
    • Hormonal Regulation of Fluid Balance
    • Imbalances of Fluid Homeostasis
  • 25.3. Electrolyte Homeostasis
    • Sodium Ions
    • Potassium Ions
    • Calcium and Phosphate Ions
    • Other Ions Critical to Human Physiology
  • 25.4. Acid-Base Homeostasis
    • Sources of Acids and Bases in the Body
    • Chemical Buffer Systems
    • Physiological Buffer Systems: Respiratory and Renal Regulation of Blood pH
    • Acid-Base Imbalances
  • 25.5. An Example of Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis
    • Concept Boost: Why Does the Amount of Water in the Body Affect the Sodium Ion Concentration?
    • Concept Boost: How Can Respiratory Changes Compensate for Metabolic Acidosis?
    • A&P in the Real World: Intravenous Fluids
    • A&P in the Real World: Digoxin Toxicity and Hyperkalemia
    • A&P in the Real World: Pseudoscience Exposed: Alkaline Diets
• 26. The Reproductive System
  • 26.1. Overview of the Reproductive System and Meiosis
    • Introduction to the Male and Female Reproductive Systems
    • Overview of Meiosis
    • Meiosis I (First Meiotic Division)
    • Meiosis II (Second Meiotic Division)
    • Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis
  • 26.2. Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System
    • Testes
    • Duct System
    • Penis
    • Accessory Sex Glands
    • Semen
    • Support Structures: Scrotum and Spermatic Cord
  • 26.3. Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
    • Spermatogenesis
    • Sustentacular Cells
    • Spermiogenesis
    • Hormonal Control of Male Reproduction
    • Male Sexual Response
    • Effects of Testosterone on Other Body Systems
    • Effects of Aging: Male Climacteric
  • 26.4. Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
    • Ovaries
    • Uterine Tubes
    • Uterus
    • Vagina
    • Female External Genitalia
    • Mammary Glands
  • 26.5. Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
    • Oogenesis
    • Ovarian Follicles and the Ovarian Cycle
    • Other Effects of Female Hormones
    • The Uterine Cycle
    • Female Sexual Response
    • Puberty and Menopause
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Hormonal Regulation and Female Reproductive Cycles
  • 26.6. Methods of Birth Control
    • Behavioral Methods
    • Barrier Methods
  • 26.7. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
    • Bacterial and Parasitic STIs
    • Viral STIs
    • Concept Boost: Understanding Diploid and Haploid Cells
    • Concept Boost: Spermatogenesis versus Oogenesis
    • The Big Picture of Hormonal Regulation of the Ovarian and Uterine Cycles
    • A&P in the Real World: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer
    • A&P in the Real World: Male Infertility
    • A&P in the Real World: Erectile Dysfunction
    • A&P in the Real World: Breast Cancer
    • A&P in the Real World: Female Infertility
    • A&P in the Real World: Cervical Cancer
• 27. Development and Heredity
  • 27.1. Overview of Human Development
    • The Process of Prenatal Development
    • The Postnatal Period
  • 27.2. Pre-embryonic Period: Fertilization through Implantation (Weeks 1 and 2)
    • Fertilization
    • Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation
    • Implantation
    • Development of Extraembryonic Membranes
  • 27.3. Embryonic Period: Week 3 through Week 8
    • Gastrulation and Formation of Germ Layers
    • Organogenesis
  • 27.4. Fetal Period: Week 9 until Birth (about Week 38)
    • Placentation
    • Fetal Development
    • Putting It All Together: The Big Picture of Prenatal Development
  • 27.5. Pregnancy and Childbirth
    • Maternal Changes during Pregnancy
    • Parturition
  • 27.6. Postnatal Changes in the Newborn and Mother
    • Changes in the Newborn
    • Changes in the Mother
  • 27.7. Heredity
    • Introduction to Heredity
    • Patterns of Inheritance
    • The Big Picture of Prenatal Development
    • A&P in the Real World: Assisted Reproductive Technology
    • A&P in the Real World: Ectopic Pregnancy
    • A&P in the Real World: Placenta Previa
    • A&P in the Real World: Prematurity
    • A&P in the Real World: Preeclampsia
    • A&P in the Real World: Patent Ductus Arteriosus and Patent Foramen Ovale
    • A&P in the Real World: Prenatal and Newborn Genetic Screening
• Appendix A: Answers to Apply What You Learned and Assess What You Learned
• Appendix B: The Metric System
• Appendix C: Laboratory Reference Values
• Appendix D: Scientific Method
• Credits
• Glossary
• Index
• Student Questionnaire
• Prefixes, Suffixes, Word Roots, and Combining Forms
• Back Cover

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