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• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Global Edition Acknowledgments
• Brief Contents
• Contents
• CHAPTER 1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology
  • Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What Would You Do?
  • Overview and Objectives
  • Learning and Teaching Today
    • Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology
    • Confidence in Every Context
    • High Expectations for Teachers and Students
    • Do Teachers Make a Difference?
      • Teacher–Student Relationships
      • The Cost of Poor Teaching
  • What is Good Teaching?
    • Inside Three Classrooms
      • A Bilingual First Grade
      • A Suburban Fifth Grade
      • An Inclusive Class
      • So What is Good Teaching?
      • Models of Good Teaching: Teacher Observation and Evaluation
    • Beginning Teachers
  • The Role of Educational Psychology
    • In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and Teaching
    • Educational Psychology Today
    • Is It Just Common Sense?
      • Helping Students
      • Answer Based on Research
      • Skipping Grades
      • Answer Based on Research
      • Students in Control
      • Answer Based on Research
      • Obvious Answers?
    • Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning
      • Correlation Studies
      • Experimental Studies
      • ABAB Experimental Designs
      • Clinical Interviews and Case Studies
      • Ethnography
      • The Role of Time in Research
      • What’s The Evidence? Quantitative versus Qualitative Research
      • Mixed Methods Research
      • Scientifically Based Research and Evidence-Based Practices
      • Teachers as Researchers
    • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research Should Guide Education?
    • Theories for Teaching
    • Supporting Student Learning
  • Summary and Key Terms
  • Practice Using What You Have Learned
  • Connect and Extend to Licensure
  • Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What Would They Do?
• PART I STUDENTS
  • CHAPTER 2 Cognitive Development
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • A Definition of Development
      • Three Questions Across the Theories
        • What Is the Source of Development? Nature versus Nurture
        • What Is the Shape of Development? Continuity versus Discontinuity
        • Timing: Is It Too Late? Critical versus Sensitive Periods
        • Beware of Either/Or
      • General Principles of Development
    • The Brain and Cognitive Development
      • The Developing Brain: Neurons
      • The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex
      • Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence
      • Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works
        • Culture and Brain Plasticity
      • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education
      • Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching
        • Does Instruction Affect Brain Development?
        • The Brain and Learning to Read
        • Emotions, Learning, and the Brain
      • Lessons for Teachers: General Principles
    • Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
      • Influences on Development
      • Basic Tendencies in Thinking
        • Organization
        • Adaptation
        • Equilibration
      • Four Stages of Cognitive Development
        • Infancy: the Sensorimotor Stage
        • Early Childhood to the Early Elementary Years: The Preoperational Stage
        • FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children
        • Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete-Operational Stage
        • GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child
        • High School and College: Formal Operations
        • Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage?
      • Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory
        • The Trouble with Stages
        • GUIDELINES: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations
        • Underestimating Children’s Abilities
        • Cognitive Development and Culture
      • Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development
    • Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective
      • The Social Sources of Individual Thinking
      • Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development
        • Technical Tools in a Digital Age
        • Psychological Tools
      • The Role of Language and Private Speech
        • Private Speech: Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared
      • The Zone of Proximal Development
        • Private Speech and the Zone
        • The Role of Learning and Development
      • Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory
    • Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers
      • Piaget: What Can We Learn?
        • Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking
        • Activity and Constructing Knowledge
      • Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?
        • The Role of Adults and Peers
        • Assisted Learning
      • An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind
      • Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle”
      • Cognitive Development: Lessons forTeachers
      • GUIDELINES: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would They Do?
  • CHAPTER 3 The Self, Social, and Moral Development
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • Physical Development
      • Physical and Motor Development
        • Young Children
        • Elementary School Years
        • The Adolescent Years
        • Early and Later Maturing
        • GUIDELINES: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom
      • Play, Recess, and Physical Activity
        • Cultural Differences in Play
        • Exercise and Recess
      • Reaching Every Student: Inclusive Athletics
      • Challenges in Physical Development
        • Obesity
        • Eating Disorders
        • GUIDELINES: Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents
    • Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development
      • The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model
      • Families
        • Family Structure
        • Parenting Styles
        • Culture and Parenting
        • FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Connecting with Families
        • Attachment
        • Divorce
        • GUIDELINES: Helping Children of Divorce
      • Peers
        • Cliques
        • Crowds
        • Peer Cultures
        • Friendships
        • Popularity
        • Causes and Consequences of Rejection
        • Aggression
        • Relational Aggression
        • Media, Modeling, and Aggression
        • GUIDELINES: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation
        • Video Games and Aggressive Behavior
      • Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support
      • Academic and Personal Caring
      • Teachers and Child Abuse
      • Society and Media
    • Identity and Self-Concept
      • Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development
        • The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative
        • The Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus Inferiority
        • GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry
        • Adolescence: The Search for Identity
        • Identity and Technology
        • Beyond the School Years
      • Racial and Ethnic Identity
        • GUIDELINES: Supporting Identity Formation
        • Multidimensional and Flexible Ethnic Identities
        • Black Racial Identity: Outcome and Process
        • Racial and Ethnic Pride
      • Self-Concept
        • The Structure of Self-Concept
        • How Self-Concept Develops
        • Self-Concept and Achievement
      • Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence
      • Self-Esteem
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem?
    • Understanding Others and Moral Development
      • Theory of Mind and Intention
      • Moral Development
        • Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development
        • Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
      • Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices
        • Moral versus Conventional Domains
        • Implications for Teachers
      • Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology
      • Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating
        • Who Cheats?
        • Dealing with Cheating
    • Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would They Do?
  • CHAPTER 4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every student: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • Intelligence
      • Language and Labels
        • Disabilities and Handicaps
        • Person-First Language
        • Possible Biases in the Application of Labels
      • What Does Intelligence Mean?
      • Intelligence: One Ability or Many?
      • Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
        • What Are These Intelligences?
        • Critics of Multiple Intelligences Theory
        • Gardner Responds
        • Multiple Intelligences Go to School
      • Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers
      • Another View: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence
      • Neuroscience and Intelligence
      • Measuring Intelligence
        • Binet’s Dilemma
        • What Does an IQ Score Mean?
        • Group versus Individual IQ Tests
        • The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting Smarter?
        • GUIDELINES: Interpreting IQ Scores
        • Intelligence and Achievement
      • Gender Differences in Intelligence and Achievement
        • Heredity or Environment?
      • Learning to Be Intelligent: Being Smart About IQ
    • Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters
      • Assessing Creativity
      • OK, But So What: Why Does Creativity Matter?
      • What Are the Sources of Creativity?
        • Creativity and Cognition
        • Creativity and Diversity
      • Creativity in the Classroom
        • Brainstorming
        • Creative Schools
        • GUIDELINES: Applying and Encouraging Creativity
    • Learning Styles
      • Learning Styles/Preferences
        • Cautions About Learning Styles
        • The Value of Considering Learning Styles
      • Beyond Either/Or
    • Individual Differences and the Law
      • IDEA
        • Least Restrictive Environment
        • Individualized Education Program
        • The Rights of Students and Families
      • Section 504 Protections
        • FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Productive Conferences
    • Students with Learning Challenges
      • Neuroscience and Learning Challenges
      • Students with Learning Disabilities
        • Student Characteristics
        • Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities
      • Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders
        • Definitions
        • Treating ADHD with Drugs
        • Alternatives/Additions to Drug Treatments
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD?
      • Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and ADHD
      • Students with Communication Disorders
        • Speech Disorders
        • Language Disorders
      • Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties
        • Suicide
        • GUIDELINES: Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems
        • Drug Abuse
        • Prevention
      • Students with Intellectual Disabilities
        • GUIDELINES: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities
      • Students with Health and Sensory Impairments
        • Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities
        • Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy)
        • Other Serious Health Concerns: Asthma, Sickle Cell Disease, and Diabetes
        • Students with Vision Impairments
        • Students Who Are Deaf
      • Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome
        • Interventions
      • Response to Intervention
    • Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
      • Who Are These Students?
        • What Is the Origin of These Gifts?
        • What Problems Do Students Who Are Gifted Face?
      • Identifying Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
        • Recognizing Gifts and Talents
      • Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents
        • Acceleration
        • Methods and Strategies
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would They Do?
  • CHAPTER 5 Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Cultures Clash in the Classroom: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • The Development of Language
      • What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences
        • The Puzzle of Language
        • Beware of Either/Or Choices
      • When and How Does Language Develop?
        • Sounds and Pronunciation
        • Vocabulary and Meaning
        • Grammar and Syntax
        • Pragmatics: Using Language in Social Situations
        • Metalinguistic Awareness
      • Emergent Literacy
        • Inside-Out and Outside-In Skills
        • Building a Foundation
        • When There Are Persistent Problems
      • Emergent Literacy and Language Diversity
        • Languages and Emergent Literacy
        • Bilingual Emergent Literacy
        • GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy
    • Diversity in Language Development
      • Dual-Language Development
        • Second-Language Learning
        • Benefits of Bilingualism
        • Language Loss
      • Signed Languages
      • What Is Involved in Being Bilingual?
      • Contextualized and Academic Language
        • GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning
    • Dialect Differences in the Classroom
      • Dialects
        • Dialects and Pronunciation
        • Dialects and Teaching
      • Genderlects
    • Teaching Immigrant Students
      • Immigrants and Refugees
      • Classrooms Today
        • Four Student Profiles
      • Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds
      • Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations
      • Working with Families: Using the Tools of the Culture
        • GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are ELLs
        • Funds of Knowledge and Welcome Centers
        • Student-Led Conferences
        • FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Welcoming All Families
    • Teaching Immigrant Students Who Are English Language Learners
      • Two Approaches to English Language Learning
        • Research on Bilingual Education
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach Students Who Are ELLs?
        • Visual Strategies
        • Literature Response Groups
        • Bilingualism for All: Two-Way Immersion
      • Sheltered Instruction
    • Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities and Special Gifts
      • Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities
      • Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual Students
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Cultures Clash in the Classroom: What Would They Do?
  • CHAPTER 6 Culture and Diversity
    • Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • Today’s Diverse Classrooms
      • American Cultural Diversity
      • Meet Two More Students
      • Cautions: Interpreting Cultural Differences
        • Cultural Conflicts and Compatibilities
        • Dangers in Stereotyping
    • Economic and Social Class Differences
      • Social Class and Socioeconomic Status
      • Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly Mobile Students
      • Poverty and School Achievement
        • Health, Environment, and Stress
        • Low Expectations—Low Academic Self-Concept
        • Peer Influences and Resistance Cultures
        • Home Environment and Resources
        • Summer Setbacks
        • GUIDELINES: Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty
        • Tracking: Poor Teaching
    • Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning
      • Terms: Ethnicity and Race
      • Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement
      • The Legacy of Inequality
        • What Is Prejudice?
        • The Development of Prejudice
        • From Prejudice to Discrimination
      • Stereotype Threat
        • Who Is Affected by Stereotype Threat?
        • Short-Term Effects: Test Performance
        • Long-Term Effects: Disidentification
        • Combating Stereotype Threat and Discrimination
    • Gender in Teaching and Learning
      • Sex and Gender
      • Gender Identity
      • Gender Roles
      • Gender Bias in Curriculum Materials and Media
      • Gender Bias in Teaching
        • Sexual Orientation
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently?
      • Discrimination Based on Gender Expression and Sexual Orientation
      • GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching
    • Creating Culturally Compatible Classrooms
      • Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
        • Self-Agency Strand
        • Relationship Strand
      • Diversity in Learning
        • Social Organization
        • Cultural Values and Learning Preferences
        • Cautions (Again) About Learning Styles/Preferences Research
        • Sociolinguistics
        • Cultural Discontinuity
      • Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student
        • Know Yourself
        • Know Your Students
        • Respect Your Students
        • Teach Your Students
        • GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What Would They Do?
• PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION
  • CHAPTER 7 Behavioral Views of Learning
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • Understanding Learning
      • Ethical Issues
        • Goals
        • Strategies
      • Learning Is Not Always What It Seems
    • Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning
      • GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning
    • Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses
      • Types of Consequences
        • Reinforcement
        • Punishment
      • Neuroscience of Reinforcement and Punishment
      • Reinforcement Schedules
        • Extinction
      • Antecedents and Behavior Change
        • Effective Instruction Delivery
        • Cueing
    • Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis
      • Methods for Encouraging Behaviors
        • Reinforcing with Teacher Attention
        • Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle
        • GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately
        • Shaping
        • Positive Practice
        • GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive Behaviors
      • Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences
        • Contingency Contracts
        • Token Reinforcement Systems
        • Group Consequences
      • Handling Undesirable Behavior
        • Negative Reinforcement
        • Reprimands
        • Response Cost
        • Social Isolation
        • Some Cautions About Punishment
        • GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment
      • Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems
    • Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Management
      • Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral Assessments
      • Positive Behavior Supports
      • Self-Management
        • Goal Setting
        • Monitoring and Evaluating Progress
        • FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management
        • Self-Reinforcement
    • Challenges and Criticisms
      • Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning
        • Enactive and Observational Learning
        • Learning and Performance
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning?
      • Criticisms of Behavioral Methods
      • Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would They Do?
  • CHAPTER 8 Cognitive Views of Learning
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • Elements of the Cognitive Perspective
      • The Brain and Cognitive Learning
      • The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition
        • General and Specific Knowledge
        • Declarative, Procedural, and Self-Regulatory Knowledge
    • Cognitive Views of Memory
      • Sensory Memory
        • Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory Memory
        • Perception
        • The Role of Attention
        • Attention and Multitasking
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What’s Wrong with Multitasking?
        • Attention and Teaching
        • GUIDELINES: Gaining and Maintaining Attention
      • Working Memory
        • Capacity of Working Memory
        • The Central Executive
        • The Phonological Loop
        • The Visuospatial Sketchpad
        • The Episodic Buffer
        • The Duration and Contents of Working Memory
      • Cognitive Load and Retaining Information
        • Two Kinds of Cognitive Load
        • Retaining Information in Working Memory
        • Levels of Processing Theory
        • Forgetting
      • Individual Differences in Working Memory
        • Developmental Differences
        • Individual Differences
      • Is Working Memory Really Separate?
    • Long-Term Memory
      • Capacity and Duration of Long-Term Memory
      • Contents of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (Declarative) Memories
        • Propositions and Propositional Networks
        • Images
        • Two Are Better Than One: Words and Images
        • Concepts
        • Prototypes, Exemplars, and Theory-Based Categories
        • Teaching Concepts
        • Schemas
        • Episodic Memory
      • Contents of Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memories
      • Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory
        • Spreading Activation
        • Reconstruction
        • Forgetting and Long-Term Memory
      • Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory
    • Teaching for Deep, Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications
      • Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections
        • Elaboration
        • FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Organizing Learning
        • Organization
        • Imagery
        • Context
        • Desirable Difficulty
        • Effective Practice
      • Reaching Every Student: Make it Meaningful
        • Mnemonics
      • If You Have to Memorize . . .
      • Lessons for Teachers: Declarative Knowledge
      • Development of Procedural Knowledge
        • Automated Basic Skills
        • GUIDELINES: Helping Students Understand and Remember
        • Domain-Specific Strategies
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would They Do?
  • CHAPTER 9 Complex Cognitive Processes
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • Metacognition
      • Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation
      • Individual Differences in Metacognition
      • Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition
        • Metacognitive Development for Younger Students
        • Metacognitive Development for Secondary and College Students (Like You)
    • Learning Strategies
      • Being Strategic About Learning
        • Deciding What Is Important
        • Summaries
        • Underlining and Highlighting
        • Taking Notes
      • Visual Tools for Organizing
      • Retrieval Practice: Powerful But Underused
      • Reading Strategies
      • Applying Learning Strategies
        • Appropriate Tasks
        • Valuing Learning
        • Effort and Efficacy
      • Reaching Every Student: Teaching How to Learn
    • Problem Solving
      • Identifying: Problem Finding
      • Defining Goals and Representing the Problem
        • Focusing Attention on What Is Relevant
        • Understanding the Words
        • Understanding the Whole Problem
        • Translation and Schema Training: Direct Instruction in Schemas
        • Translation and Schema Training: Worked Examples
        • Worked Examples and Embodied Cognition
        • The Results of Problem Representation
      • Searching for Possible Solution Strategies
        • Algorithms
        • Heuristics
      • Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back
      • Factors That Hinder Problem Solving
        • Some Problems with Heuristics
        • GUIDELINES: Applying Problem Solving
      • Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving
        • Knowing What Is Important
        • Memory for Patterns and Organization
        • Procedural Knowledge
        • Planning and Monitoring
        • GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student
    • Critical Thinking and Argumentation
      • What Critical Thinkers Do: Paul and Elder Model
      • Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects
      • Argumentation
        • Two Styles of Argumentation
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving?
        • Lessons for Teachers
    • Teaching for Transfer
      • The Many Views of Transfer
      • Teaching for Positive Transfer
        • What Is Worth Learning?
        • Lessons for Teachers: Supporting Transfer
        • Stages of Transfer for Strategies
        • FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Promoting Transfer
    • Bringing It All Together: Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge
      • What Is Robust Knowledge?
      • Recognizing and Assessing Robust Knowledge
      • Teaching for Robust Knowledge
        • Practice
        • Worked Examples
        • Analogies
        • Self-Explanations
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would They Do?
  • CHAPTER 10 Constructivism and Designing Learning Environments
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • Cognitive and Social Constructivism
      • Constructivist Views of Learning
        • Cognitive Constructivism
        • Social Constructivism
      • How Is Knowledge Constructed?
      • Knowledge: Situated or General?
      • Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered Teaching
        • Complex Learning Environments and Authentic Tasks
        • Social Negotiation
        • Multiple Perspectives and Representations of Content
        • Understanding the Knowledge Construction Process
        • Student Ownership of Learning
    • Designing Constructivist Learning Environments
      • Assumptions to Guide the Design of Learning Environments
      • Facilitating in a Constructivist Classroom
        • Scaffolding
        • Advance Organizers as Scaffolding
        • Facilitating Through Asking and Answering Deep Questions
        • GUIDELINES: Facilitating Deep Questioning
      • Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning
        • Examples of Inquiry
        • Problem-Based Learning
        • Research on Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning
        • Being Smart About Problem-Based Learning
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching Approaches?
      • Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching
        • Cognitive Apprenticeships in Reading: Reciprocal Teaching
        • Applying Reciprocal Teaching
    • Collaboration and Cooperation
      • Collaboration, Group Work, and Cooperative Learning
      • Beyond Groups to Cooperation
      • What Can Go Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning
      • Tasks for Cooperative Learning
        • Highly Structured, Review, and Skill-Building Tasks
        • Ill-Structured, Conceptual, and Problem-Solving Tasks
        • Social Skills and Communication Tasks
      • Setting Up Cooperative Groups
        • Assigning Roles
        • Giving and Receiving Explanations
      • Designs for Cooperation
        • Reciprocal Questioning
        • Jigsaw
        • Constructive/Structured Controversies
      • Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely
        • GUIDELINES: Using Cooperative Learning
      • Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice
    • Designing Learning Environments in a Digital World
      • Technology and Learning
        • Technology-Rich Environments
        • Virtual Learning Environments
        • Personal Learning Environments
        • Immersive Virtual Learning Environments
        • Games
      • Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities for Young Children
        • Computational Thinking and Coding
        • GUIDELINES: Using Computers
        • Media/Digital Literacy
        • GUIDELINES: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy
      • The Flipped Classroom
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What Would They Do?
  • CHAPTER 11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • Social Cognitive Theory
      • A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura
      • Beyond Behaviorism
      • Triadic Reciprocal Causality
    • Modeling: Learning by Observing Others
      • Elements of Observational Learning
        • Attention
        • Retention
        • Production
        • Motivation and Reinforcement
      • Observational Learning in Teaching
        • Directing Attention
        • Fine Tuning Already-Learned Behaviors
        • Strengthening or Weakening Inhibitions
        • Teaching New Behaviors
        • Arousing Emotion
        • GUIDELINES: Using Observational Learning
    • Agency and Self-Efficacy
      • Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem
      • Sources of Self-Efficacy
      • Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching
        • GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Efficacy
      • Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy
    • Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will
      • What Influences Self-Regulation?
        • Knowledge
        • Motivation
        • Volition
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are “Grittier” Students More Successful?
        • Development of Self-Regulation
      • A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Learning
      • Reaching Every Student: Examples of Self-Regulation in Two Classrooms
        • Writing
        • Math Problem Solving
      • Technology and Self-Regulation
      • Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive Behavior Modification
      • Emotional Self-Regulation
        • GUIDELINES: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation
    • Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning
      • Teacher Stress, Efficacy, and Self-Regulated Learning
      • Designing Classrooms for Self-Regulation
      • Complex Tasks
      • Control
      • Self-Evaluation
      • Collaboration
    • Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would They Do?
  • CHAPTER 12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • What Is Motivation?
      • Meeting Some Students
      • Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
        • Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Lessons for Teachers
        • What You Already Know About Motivation
    • Needs and Self-Determination
      • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
      • Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness
        • Self-Determination in the Classroom
        • Information and Control
        • The Need for Relatedness
      • Needs: Lessons for Teachers
        • GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy
    • Goals and Goal Orientations
      • Types of Goals and Goal Orientations
        • Four Achievement Goal Orientations in School
        • Wait—Are Performance Goals Always Bad?
        • Social and Work-Avoidance Goals
        • Goals in Social Context
      • Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance
      • Goals: Lessons for Teachers
    • Expectancy-Value-Cost Explanations
      • Costs
      • Tasks Value
      • Lessons for Teachers
    • Attributions and Beliefs About Knowledge, Ability, and Self-Worth
      • Attributions in the Classroom
      • Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions
      • Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs
      • Mindsets and Beliefs About Ability
      • Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers
      • Beliefs About Self-Worth
        • Learned Helplessness
        • Self-Worth
      • Self-Worth: Lessons for Teachers
        • GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Worth
    • How Do You Feel About Learning? Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety
      • Tapping Interests
        • Two Kinds of Interests
        • Catching and Holding Interests
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?
      • Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity
        • GUIDELINES: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity
      • Flow
      • Emotions and Anxiety
        • Neuroscience and Emotion
        • Achievement Emotions
        • Arousal and Anxiety
        • Anxiety in the Classroom
        • How Does Anxiety Interfere with Achievement?
      • Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety
        • GUIDELINES: Coping with Anxiety
      • Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers
    • Motivation to Learn in School: On Target
      • Tasks for Learning
        • Beyond Task Value to Genuine Appreciation
        • Authentic Tasks
      • Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment
        • Supporting Choices
        • Recognizing Accomplishment
      • Grouping, Evaluation, and Time
        • Grouping and Goal Structures
        • Evaluation
        • Time
        • Putting It All Together
      • Diversity in Motivation
      • Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation
        • Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations
        • Do I Want To Do It? Seeing the Value of Learning
        • What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying Focused on the Task
        • FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Motivation to Learn
        • Do I Belong in This Classroom?
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources are Thin: What Would They Do?
• PART III TEACHING AND ASSESSING
  • CHAPTER 13 Managing Learning Environments
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • The What and Why of Classroom Management
      • The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation
      • The Goals of Classroom Management
        • Access to Learning
        • More Time for Learning
        • Management Means Relationships
        • Management for Self-Management
    • Creating a Positive Learning Environment
      • Some Research Results
      • Routines and Rules Required
        • Routines and Procedures
        • Rules
        • GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Routines
        • Rules for Elementary School
        • Rules for Secondary School
        • Consequences
        • Who Sets the Rules and Consequences?
      • Planning Spaces for Learning
        • Personal Territories and Seating Arrangements
        • Interest Areas
      • Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class
        • Effective Managers for Elementary Students
        • GUIDELINES: Designing Learning Spaces
        • Effective Managers for Secondary Students
    • Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning
      • Encouraging Engagement
      • Prevention Is the Best Medicine
        • GUIDELINES: Keeping Students Engaged
        • Withitness
        • Overlapping and Group Focus
        • Movement Management
        • Student Social Skills as Prevention
      • Caring Relationships: Connections with School
        • Teacher Connections
        • School Connections
        • Creating Communities of Care for Adolescents
    • Dealing with Discipline Problems
      • Stopping Problems Quickly
        • GUIDELINES: Creating Caring Relationships
      • If You Impose Penalties
      • Teacher-Imposed Penalties versus Student Responsibility
        • GUIDELINES: Imposing Penalties
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?
      • What About Zero Tolerance?
      • Bullying and Cyberbullying
        • Victims
        • Why Do Students Bully?
        • What Can Teachers Do? Bullying and Teasing
        • Cyberbullying
      • Special Problems with High School Students
        • GUIDELINES: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations
    • The Need for Communication
      • Message Sent—Message Received
      • Empathetic Listening
      • When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, Assertive Discipline, and Problem Solving
        • “I” Messages
        • Assertive Discipline
        • Confrontations and Negotiations
      • Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Restorative Justice
        • Peer Mediation
        • Restorative Justice
      • Research on Management Approaches
    • Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management
      • FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Classroom Management
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would They Do?
  • CHAPTER 14 Teaching Every Student
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • Research on Teaching
      • Characteristics of Effective Teachers
        • Clarity and Organization
        • Enthusiasm and Warmth
      • Knowledge for Teaching
      • Research on Teaching Strategies
    • The First Step: Planning
      • Research on Planning
      • Learning Targets
        • An Example of State-Level Goals: The Common Core
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are the Common Core Standards a Valuable Guide for Teaching?
        • Classrooms Targets for Learning
      • Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies
        • The Cognitive Domain
        • The Affective Domain
        • The Psychomotor Domain
        • Another Take on Learning Targets
      • Planning from a Constructivist Perspective
        • GUIDELINES: Using Learning Targets
    • Teaching Approaches
      • Direct Instruction
        • Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions
        • Why Does Direct Instruction Work?
        • Evaluating Direct Instruction
      • Seatwork and Homework
        • Seatwork
        • GUIDELINES: Effective Direct Instruction
        • Homework
        • The Case Against Homework
        • Homework for Older Students
        • Beware of Either/Or
      • Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback
        • FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Homework
        • Kinds of Questions
        • Asking Deep Questions
        • Fitting The Questions to the Students
        • Responding to Student Answers
        • Group Discussion
      • Fitting Teaching to Your Goals
      • Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design
        • GUIDELINES: Productive Group Discussions
    • Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive Teaching
      • Within-Class and Flexible Grouping
        • The Problems with Ability Grouping
        • Flexible Grouping
        • GUIDELINES: Using Flexible Grouping
      • Adaptive Teaching
      • Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms
      • Technology and Differentiation
    • Teacher Expectations
      • Two Kinds of Expectation Effects
      • Sources of Expectations
      • Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement?
      • Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations
        • GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would They Do?
  • CHAPTER 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would You Do?
    • Overview and Objectives
    • Basics of Assessment
      • Measurement and Assessment
        • Formative, Interim, and Summative Assessment
      • Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity
        • Reliability of Test Scores
        • Validity
        • Absence of Bias
    • Classroom Assessment: Testing
      • Interpreting Any Test Score
        • Norm-Referenced Test Interpretations
        • Criterion-Referenced Test Interpretations
      • Using the Tests from Textbooks
      • Selected-Response Testing
        • Using Multiple-Choice Tests
        • Writing Multiple-Choice Questions
      • Constructed Responses: Essay Testing
        • Constructing Essay Tests
        • Evaluating Essays
        • GUIDELINES: Writing Multiple-Choice Items
      • Assessing Traditional Testing
    • Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments
      • Informal Assessments
        • Exit Tickets
        • Journals
        • Involving Students in Assessments
      • Authentic Assessments: Portfolios and Exhibitions
        • Portfolios
        • Exhibitions
      • Evaluating Portfolios and Performances
      • Scoring Rubrics
        • GUIDELINES: Creating Portfolios
        • GUIDELINES: Developing a Rubric
        • Reliability, Validity, Generalizability
        • Diversity and Bias in Performance Assessment
      • Assessing Complex Thinking
      • Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers
    • Grading
      • Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading
      • Effects of Grading on Students
        • The Value of Failing?
        • Retention in Grade
      • Grades and Motivation
        • POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Children Be Held Back?
      • Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families
    • Standardized Testing
      • Types of Scores
        • Measurements of Central Tendency and Standard Deviation
        • GUIDELINES: Using Any Grading System
        • The Normal Distribution
        • Percentile Rank Scores
        • Grade-Equivalent Scores
        • Standard Scores
      • Interpreting Standardized Test Reports
        • Discussing Test Results with Families
      • Accountability and High-Stakes Testing
        • FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Conferences and Explaining Test Results
        • Making Decisions
        • What Do Teachers Think?
        • Documented Problems with High-Stakes Testing
      • New Directions: PARCC and SBAC
        • In Sum: Using High-Stakes Testing Well
        • GUIDELINES: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing
      • Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests
      • Teacher Accountability and Evaluation
      • Value-Added Measures
      • Quality Standardized Assessment: Lessons for Teachers
    • Summary and Key Terms
    • Practice Using What You Have Learned
    • Connect and Extend to Licensure
    • Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would They Do?
• Licensure Appendix
• Glossary
• References
• Name Index
• Subject Index

UM RAFBÆKUR Á HEIMKAUP.IS

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