Earth Materials
Námskeið
- JAR211G Steindafræði.
- JAR312G Storkuberg
Lýsing:
This concise, accessible, market-leading textbook brings together the wide-ranging fundamentals students need to understand rocks and minerals, and shows them how they relate to the broader Earth, materials and environmental sciences. Designed specifically for one-semester courses, it is beautifully illustrated to explain the key concepts in mineralogy and petrology. This edition has been fully updated based on classroom experience, and new features include a completely new chapter providing an elementary introduction to thermodynamics, kinetics, radioactive decay and absolute dating; new mineral descriptions and many new stunning color photographs; and a new section on hydraulic fracturing and discussion of some of its most serious potential environmental consequences.
Annað
- Höfundar: Cornelis Klein, Anthony Philpotts
- Útgáfa:2
- Útgáfudagur: 2016-12-15
- Engar takmarkanir á útprentun
- Engar takmarkanir afritun
- Format:ePub
- ISBN 13: 9781108105965
- Print ISBN: 9781107155404
- ISBN 10: 1108105963
Efnisyfirlit
- Cover
- Half title
- Frontispiece
- Title page
- Imprints page
- Dedication
- Contents
- Preface
- Coverage
- Acknowledgments to First Edition
- Acknowledgments to Second Edition
- Chapter 1 Introduction
- 1.1 Formation of Earth’s Chemical Elements in Supernovae
- 1.2 Birth of the Solar System and Earth
- 1.3 Accretion and Early History of the Earth
- 1.4 Internal Structure of the Earth
- 1.5 Cooling of the Planet and Plate Tectonics
- 1.6 Plate Tectonics and the Formation of Rocks
- 1.6.1 Divergent Plate Boundaries
- 1.6.2 Convergent Plate Boundaries
- 1.6.3 Transform Boundaries
- 1.6.4 Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots
- 1.7 Outline of Subsequent Chapters
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Online Resources
- Further Reading
- Chapter 2 Materials of the Solid Earth
- 2.1 Definition of a Mineral
- 2.1.1 Examples of Some Familiar Minerals
- 2.2 How Are Minerals Classified?
- 2.3 How Are Minerals Named?
- 2.4 What Is a Crystal, and What Is the Crystalline State?
- 2.5 What Is a Rock?
- 2.6 How Do Rocks Form? Classification into Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic
- 2.7 Examples of Some Familiar Rocks
- 2.8 Plate Tectonics and the Generation of Rocks
- 2.8.1 Midocean-ridge Rock Factory
- 2.8.2 Convergent-plate-boundary Rock Factory
- 2.8.3 Continental Divergent-plate-boundary Rock Factory (Rift Valley)
- 2.8.4 Mantle Plume Hot-spot Rock Factory
- 2.8.5 Passive-margin Rock Factories
- 2.8.6 Epeiric-sea Rock Factories
- 2.8.7 Metamorphic Rock Factories
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Online Resources
- Further Reading
- 2.1 Definition of a Mineral
- Chapter 3 How Are Minerals Identified?
- 3.1 Habit
- 3.2 State of Aggregation
- 3.3 Color and Luster
- 3.3.1 Reasons for Color
- Play of Color
- Chatoyancy, Labradorescence, and Asterism
- Fluorescence
- Streak
- 3.3.1 Reasons for Color
- 3.4 Cleavage
- 3.5 Hardness
- 3.6 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
- 3.6.1 Specific Gravity and Atomic Structure
- 3.7 Magnetism, Solubility in Acid, and Radioactivity
- Magnetism
- Solubility in HCl
- Radioactivity
- 3.8 Instrumental Methods for the Quantitative Characterization of Minerals
- 3.8.1 X-Ray Powder Diffraction
- 3.8.2 Electron Beam Techniques: Scanning Electron Microscopy, Electron Microprobe Analysis, and Transmission Electron Microscopy
- Mineral Composition
- Electron Microprobe
- Transmission Electron Microscopy
- 4.1 Naturally Occurring Chemical Elements
- 4.2 Atomic and Ionic Radii
- 4.3 What Factors Control the Packing of Ions (and Atoms) in Mineral Structures?
- 4.4 Pauling’s Rules
- Rule 1. The Coordination Principle
- Rule 2. The Electrostatic Valency Principle
- Rule 3. Sharing of Polyhedral Elements (I)
- Rule 4. Sharing of Polyhedral Elements (II)
- Rule 5. The Principle of Parsimony
- 4.5 What Forces Hold Crystal Structures Together?
- 4.5.1 Electronic Configuration of Atoms and Ions
- 4.5.2 Chemical Bonding
- Covalent Bonding
- Ionic Bonding
- Metallic Bonding
- Van der Waals Bonding
- 4.6.1 Factors Responsible for the Extent of Atomic Substitution (Solid Solution)
- The size of the atoms or ions:
- The charge on the ions:
- The temperature at which atomic substitution occurs.
- The availability of the ions
- 4.6.2 Types of Solid Solution
- Substitutional solid solution.
- Interstitial solid solution.
- Omission solid solution
- 5.1 Symmetry Elements and Operations
- Mirrors
- Rotation Axes
- Center of Symmetry
- Rotoinversion Axes
- 5.2 Combinations of Symmetry Elements
- 5.3 The Six Crystal Systems
- 5.3.1 Crystallographic Axes
- 5.3.2 Hermann–Mauguin Symmetry Notation
- 5.3.3 Crystallographic Notation for Planes in Crystals
- 5.3.4 Definition of Crystal Form
- 5.3.5 Crystallographic Notation for Directions in Crystals
- 5.4 Crystal Projections
- 5.5 Seven of the Thirty-two Point Groups
- 4/m3¯2/m
- 6/m2/m2/m
- 3¯2/m
- 4/m2/m2/m
- 2/m2/m2/m
- 2/m
- 1¯
- 5.6 Twins
- 5.7 Some Aspects of Space Groups
- Translation
- Screw Axes
- Glide Planes
- 5.7.1 Space Groups
- 5.8 Polymorphism
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Further Reading
- 6.1 Light and the Polarizing Microscope
- The Components of the Petrographic Microscope
- 6.2 Passage of Light through a Crystal: Refractive Index and Angle of Refraction
- The Example of Apatite
- 6.3 Passage of Polarized Light through Minerals
- Looking at Anisotropic Minerals
- 6.4 Accessory Plates and Determination of Fast and Slow Vibration Directions
- 6.5 Extinction Positions and the Sign of Elongation
- 6.6 Anomalous Interference Colors, Pleochroism, and Absorption
- 6.7 Mineral Identification Chart
- 6.8 Uniaxial Optical Indicatrix
- The Example of Zircon
- 6.9 Biaxial Optical Indicatrix
- 6.10 Uniaxial Interference Figures
- The Example of Quartz
- 6.11 Determination of Optic Sign from Uniaxial Optic Axis Figure
- 6.12 Biaxial Interference Figures, Optic Sign, and Optic Angle (2V)
- The Example of Muscovite
- 6.13 Modal Analysis
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Online Resources
- Further Reading
- 7.1 Common Chemical Elements in the Earth’s Crust and in Mineral and Rock Analyses
- 7.2 Calculation of Mineral Formulas
- 7.3 Triangular Diagrams
- 7.4 Systematic Mineralogical Descriptions of Common Igneous Minerals
- 7.5 Plagioclase Feldspar: NaAlSi3O8–CaAl2Si2O8albite(Ab)anorthite(An)
- 7.6 K-Feldspar: KAlSi3O8 with Three Polymorphs (Microcline, Orthoclase, and Sanidine)
- 7.7 Quartz: SiO2 and Polymorphs Tridymite, Cristobalite, Coesite, and Stishovite
- 7.8 Nepheline: (Na,K)AlSiO4
- 7.9 Leucite: KAlSi2O6
- 7.10 Sodalite: Na4Al3Si3O12Cl
- 7.11 Enstatite: MgSiO3−(Mg,Fe)SiO3
- 7.12 Pigeonite: ~Ca0.25(Mg,Fe)1.75Si2O6
- 7.13 Augite: (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
- 7.14 Aegirine: NaFe3+Si2O6
- 7.15 Hornblende: (Na,K)0−1Ca2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH)2
- 7.16 Muscovite: KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
- 7.17 Phlogopite: KMg3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
- 7.18 Biotite: K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
- 7.19 Olivine: (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
- 7.20 Zircon: ZrSiO4
- 7.21 Tourmaline: (Na,Ca,K)(Fe2+,Mg,Al,Mn,Li)3(Al,Fe3+)6(BO3)3(Si6O18)(OH)3(O,OH,F)
- 7.22 Allanite: (Ca,Ce)2(Al,Fe2+,Fe3+)3(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)
- 7.23 Melilite: (Ca,Na)2(Mg,Al)(Si,Al)2O7
- 7.24 Magnetite: Fe3O4
- 7.25 Chromite: FeCr2O4
- 7.26 Hematite: Fe2O3
- 7.27 Ilmenite: FeTiO3
- 7.28 Rutile: TiO2
- 7.29 Uraninite: UO2
- 7.30 Pyrite: FeS2
- 7.31 Pyrrhotite: Fe1-xS
- 7.32 Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2
- 7.33 Apatite: Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl)
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Further Reading
- 8.1 Basic Thermodynamic Terms
- System
- Heat and Work
- Variables
- 8.2 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics
- 8.3 Entropy and the Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics
- 8.4 Gibbs Free Energy
- 8.5 Variation of Gibbs Free Energy with Temperature and Pressure
- 8.6 Variation of Gibbs Free Energy with Composition
- 8.7 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
- 8.8 Thermodynamic Phase Diagrams
- 8.9 Multicomponent Phase Diagrams
- 8.9.1 A Simple Two-component System H2O–NaCl
- 8.9.2 Melting of a Pair of Minerals: the Eutectic
- Melting and Crystallization in a Simple Eutectic Phase Diagram
- Igneous Textures Related to a Eutectic
- 8.9.3 Congruent Melting and the Granite and Nepheline Syenite Eutectics
- 8.9.4 Incongruent Melting and the Peritectic
- 8.9.5 Melting Relations of Solid Solutions
- Melting and Crystallizing Olivine
- Melting and Crystallizing Plagioclase
- Melting and Crystallizing Alkali Feldspars
- 8.9.6 A Simple Ternary Phase Diagram
- 8.9.7 The Ternary Quartz–Albite–Orthoclase “Granite” System
- 8.9.8 A Simple Ternary Basalt System: Diopside–Albite–Anorthite
- 8.9.9 More Complex Phase Diagrams
- 8.10 Rates of Geologic Processes
- 8.10.1 Transport Laws
- 8.10.2 Rates of Activated Processes and the Arrhenius Relation
- 8.11 Radioactive Decay
- 8.11.1 Rate of Radioactive Decay
- 8.11.2 Calculation of Absolute Age Based on Radioactive Decay
- 8.11.3 Absolute Dating by the 87Rb to 87Sr Decay
- 8.11.4 Absolute Dating by the 40K to 40Ar Decay
- 8.11.5 Absolute Dating Using Uranium and Lead
- 8.11.6 Absolute Dating by the 147Sm to 143Nd Decay
- 8.11.7 Blocking Temperature
- 8.11.8 Absolute Dating by the Fission-track Method
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Online Resources
- Further Reading
- 9.1 Why, and How, Does Solid Rock Become Molten?
- 9.1.1 Composition of the Upper Mantle
- 9.1.2 Melting Range of Upper Mantle Peridotite
- 9.1.3 Latent Heat of Fusion
- 9.1.4 Geothermal Gradient and the Geotherm
- 9.2 Three Primary Causes of Melting and their Plate Tectonic Settings
- 9.2.1 Raising the Temperature of Mantle Peridotite to the Melting Range over Hot Spots
- 9.2.2 Decompression Melting at Divergent Plate Boundaries
- 9.2.3 Fluxing with Water at Convergent Plate Boundaries (Subduction Zones)
- 9.3 Effect of Pressure on Melting
- 9.3.1 Pressure in the Earth
- 9.3.2 Effect of Pressure on the Anhydrous Melting of Rock
- 9.3.3 Hydrous Melting of Rock and the Solubility of Water in Magma
- 9.3.4 Effect of Water Undersaturation on the Melting of Rocks
- 9.3.5 Solubility of Other Gases in Magma
- 9.3.6 Exsolution of Magmatic Gases and Explosive Volcanism
- 9.4 Physical Properties of Magma
- 9.4.1 Magma Density
- 9.4.2 Magma Viscosity
- 9.4.3 Diffusion in Magma, Crystal Growth, and Grain Size of Igneous Rocks
- 9.5 Magma Ascent
- 9.5.1 Buoyancy
- 9.5.2 Buoyant Rise of Magma
- 9.6 Processes Associated with the Solidification of Magma in the Crust
- 9.6.1 Cooling of Bodies of Magma by Heat Conduction
- Generalizations about the Cooling of Igneous Bodies
- Effect of Latent Heat of Crystallization on Cooling of Magma
- 9.6.2 Cooling of Bodies of Magma by Convection and Radiation
- 9.6.3 Magmatic Differentiation by Crystal Settling
- Igneous Cumulates
- Igneous Layering
- 9.6.4 Compaction of Crystal Mush
- 9.6.5 Assimilation and Fractional Crystallization
- Assimilation by Reaction
- 9.6.6 Liquid Immiscibility
- 9.6.1 Cooling of Bodies of Magma by Heat Conduction
- 9.7 Evolution of Isotopic Reservoirs in the Earth and the Source of Magma
- 9.7.1 Evolution of 143Nd/144Nd Reservoirs in the Bulk Earth, Mantle, and Crust
- 9.7.2 Evolution of 87Sr/86Sr Reservoirs in the Bulk Earth, Mantle, and Crust
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Online Resources
- Further Reading
- 10.1 Why an Igneous Rock Classification Is Necessary
- 10.2 Mode of Occurrence of Igneous Rocks
- 10.2.1 Shallow Intrusive Igneous Bodies: Dikes, Sills, Laccoliths, Cone Sheets, Ring Dikes, and Diatremes
- Dikes, Sills, and Laccoliths
- Cone Sheets and Ring Dikes
- Diatremes
- 10.2.2 Plutonic Igneous Bodies: Lopoliths, Batholiths, and Stocks
- Lopoliths
- Batholiths
- Stocks
- 10.2.3 Extrusive Igneous Bodies: Flood Basalts, Shield Volcanoes, Composite Volcanoes, Domes, Calderas, Ash-fall and Ash-flow Deposits
- Flood Basalts
- Shield Volcanoes
- Composite Volcanoes
- Domes
- Calderas
- Ash Falls and Ash Flows
- 10.2.1 Shallow Intrusive Igneous Bodies: Dikes, Sills, Laccoliths, Cone Sheets, Ring Dikes, and Diatremes
- 10.3.1 Mode and Norm
- 10.3.2 IUGS Classification of Igneous Rocks
- 10.3.3 Composition of Common Plutonic Igneous Rocks
- 10.3.4 IUGS Classification of Volcanic Igneous Rocks
- 10.3.5 Irvine–Baragar Classification of Volcanic Rocks
- 10.4.1 Igneous Rocks Formed at Midocean-ridge Divergent Plate Boundaries
- 10.4.2 Igneous Rocks of Oceanic Islands Formed above Hot Spots
- 10.4.3 Continental Flood Basalts and Large Igneous Provinces
- 10.4.4 Alkaline Igneous Rocks Associated with Continental Rift Valleys
- 10.4.5 Igneous Rocks Formed near Convergent Plate Boundaries
- Volcanic Arcs
- Calcalkaline Magma Production above a Subducting Plate
- Calcalkaline Volcanic Rocks
- Calcalkaline Plutonic Rocks
- 10.5.1 Komatiites
- 10.5.2 Massif-type Anorthosites
- 10.5.3 Rocks Associated with Large Meteorite Impacts
- 11.1 The Interaction of the Earth’s Atmosphere with Minerals
- 11.2 Ice: H2O
- 11.3 Goethite: FeO(OH)
- 11.4 Kaolinite: Al2Si2O5(OH)4
- 11.5 Calcite: CaCO3
- 11.6 Aragonite: CaCO3
- 11.7 Dolomite: CaMg(CO3)2
- 11.8 Magnesite: MgCO3
- 11.9 Siderite: FeCO3
- 11.10 Rhodochrosite: MnCO3
- 11.11 Halite: NaCl
- 11.12 Sylvite: KCl
- 11.13 Gypsum: CaSO4·2H2O
- 11.14 Anhydrite: CaSO4
- 11.15 Chert and Agate: Both Made of Very Fine-grained SiO2
- 11.16 Phosphorite
- 11.17 Soil
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Further Reading
- 12.1 Importance of Sediments in Understanding the History of the Earth
- 12.2 Sediment Formed from Weathering of Rock
- 12.2.1 Role of Carbon Dioxide in Weathering
- 12.2.2 Weathering Products of Rock
- 12.2.3 Detrital Grain Size
- 12.2.4 Detrital Grain Roundness and Resistance to Abrasion
- 12.3 Organically Produced Sediment
- 12.3.1 Formation of Carbonate and Siliceous Sediment
- Deepwater Calcareous and Siliceous Sediment
- 12.3.2 Formation of Hydrocarbons in Sediment
- 12.3.1 Formation of Carbonate and Siliceous Sediment
- 12.4 Chemically produced sediment
- 12.5 Sediment Produced by Glacial Erosion
- 12.6 Transport of Sediment
- 12.6.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
- 12.6.2 Movement of Particles by Fluid Flow
- Rolling
- Saltation
- Suspension of Sedimentary Particles and Stokes’ Law
- Bedforms
- 12.6.3 Movement of particles in turbidity currents
- 12.6.4 Movement of Sediment in Debris Flows
- 12.7 Layering in Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
- 12.7.1 Law of Superposition
- 12.7.2 Milankovitch Cycles
- 12.7.3 Sediments Related to Tectonic Processes
- Marine Transgressions and Regressions
- 12.8.1 Convergent Plate Boundaries
- 12.8.2 Passive Continental Margins
- 12.8.3 Rift and Pull-apart Basins
- 12.9.1 Porosity and compaction
- 12.9.2 Cementation of Sediment
- 12.9.3 Pressure Solution
- 12.9.4 Recrystallization, Replacement, Dolomitization
- 13.1 Siliciclastic Sedimentary Rocks
- 13.1.1 Mudrocks (Includes Shales)
- Tectonic Setting for Deposition of Mudrocks
- 13.1.2 Sandstones
- Quartz Arenites
- Feldspathic Arenites (Arkose)
- Lithic Arenites
- Wackes (Graywacke)
- 13.1.3 Conglomerates and Breccias
- 13.1.1 Mudrocks (Includes Shales)
- 13.2 Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks
- 13.2.1 Limestones
- Grainstone
- Mudstones to Packstones
- Boundstones
- Lacustrine Limestones
- Tufa, Travertine, and Caliche
- 13.2.2 Dolostones
- 13.2.3 Tectonic Settings of Carbonate Rocks
- 13.2.1 Limestones
- 13.3 Coals
- 13.4 Oil and Natural Gas
- 13.5 Evaporites
- 13.6 Phosphorites
- 13.7 Iron-formations
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Online Resources
- Further Reading
- 14.1 Systematic Mineralogical Descriptions of Common Metamorphic Minerals
- 14.2 Garnet: (Mg2+,Fe2+,Mn2+)3Al2Si3O12 and Ca3(Fe3+,Al3+,Cr3+)2Si3O12
- 14.3 Andalusite: Al2SiO5
- 14.4 Sillimanite: Al2SiO5
- 14.5 Kyanite: Al2SiO5
- 14.6 Staurolite: Fe3−4Al18Si8O48H2−4
- 14.7 Diopside: CaMgSi2O6
- 14.8 Anthophyllite: Mg7Si8O22(OH)2
- 14.9 Cummingtonite–Grunerite: Fe2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2−Fe7Si8O22(OH)2
- 14.10 Tremolite–Ferroactinolite: Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2−Ca2Fe5Si8O22(OH)2
- 14.11 Glaucophane: Na2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2
- 14.12 Wollastonite: CaSiO3
- 14.13 Rhodonite: MnSiO3
- 14.14 Talc: Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
- 14.15 Chlorite: (Mg, Al, Fe)6(Si, Al)4O10·(OH)8
- 14.16 Antigorite: Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
- 14.17 Chrysotile: Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
- 14.18 Graphite: C
- 14.19 Epidote: Ca2Fe3+Al2O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH) Clinozoisite: Ca2Al3O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)
- 14.20 Cordierite: (Mg,Fe)2Al4Si5O18·nH2O
- 14.21 Vesuvianite: Ca19(Al,Mg,Fe)13(Si2O7)4(SiO4)10(O,OH,F)10
- 14.22 Titanite (sphene): CaTiSiO5
- 14.23 Scapolite: 3NaAlSi3O8·NaCl−3CaAl2Si2O8·CaSO4 (or ·CaCO3)
- 14.24 Lawsonite: CaAl2(Si2O7)(OH)2·H2O
- 14.25 Pumpellyite: Ca2MgAl2(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)2·H2O
- 14.26 Topaz: Al2SiO4(F,OH)2
- 14.27 Corundum: Al2O3
- 14.28 Chabazite: Ca2Al2Si4O12·6H2O
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Further Reading
- 15.1 What Changes Occur during Metamorphism?
- 15.1.1 An Example of Metamorphic Change
- 15.2 Why Do Rocks Change?
- 15.2.1 The Gibbs Free Energy, the Driving Force for Metamorphic Change
- 15.2.2 Rates of Metamorphic Reactions
- 15.2.3 The Gibbs Phase Rule and the Number of Minerals a Metamorphic Rock Can Contain
- 15.3 Metamorphic Grade and Facies
- 15.4 Textures of Metamorphic Rocks
- 15.4.1 Textures of Contact Metamorphic Rocks
- 15.4.2 Deformation and Textures of Regional Metamorphic Rocks
- Slate, Phyllite, Schist, and Gneiss
- Migration of Material during the Development of Foliation
- Growth of Metamorphic Minerals during Shear
- 15.6.1 Graphical Representation of a Simple Metamorphic Reaction
- 15.6.2 A Simple Pressure–Temperature Petrogenetic Grid
- 15.6.3 Metamorphic Field Gradients
- 15.6.4 Graphical Representation of Mineral Assemblages in Metapelites
- 15.6.5 Mineral Assemblages in Barrow’s Metamorphic Zones and Part of the Petrogenetic Grid for Metapelites
- 15.10.1 Pressure–Temperature–time (P–T–t) paths
- 15.10.2 Plate Tectonic Setting of Metamorphic Facies
- Midocean Ridges
- Convergent Plate Boundaries
- Rifting and Delamination of Continental Crust
- Overview of Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics
- 16.1 Gold: Au
- 16.2 Silver: Ag
- 16.3 Copper: Cu
- 16.4 Diamond: C
- 16.5 Sulfur: S
- 16.6 Galena: PbS
- 16.7 Sphalerite: ZnS
- 16.8 Bornite: Cu5FeS4
- 16.9 Chalcocite: Cu2S
- 16.10 Marcasite: FeS2
- 16.11 Molybdenite: MoS2
- 16.12 Arsenopyrite: FeAsS
- 16.13 Bauxite: a Mixture of Diaspore, Gibbsite, and Boehmite
- 16.14 Fluorite: CaF2
- 16.15 Barite: BaSO4
- 16.16 Spodumene: LiAlSi2O6
- 16.17 Lepidolite: K(Li,Al)2−3(AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2
- 16.18 Several Gem Minerals
- Ruby and Sapphire (Gem Varieties of Corundum, Al2O3)
- Topaz
- Tourmaline
- Emerald, Heliodor, and Aquamarine (Gem Varieties of Beryl, Be3Al2Si6O18)
- Opal
- Jade
- Turquoise
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Further Reading
- 17.1 Construction Materials
- 17.1.1 Building Stones
- 17.1.2 Bricks, Cement, and Concrete
- 17.1.3 Crushed Stone, Sand, and Gravel
- 17.2 Iron Ore
- 17.3 Clay Minerals
- 17.4 Copper Ore
- 17.5 Lithium Ore
- 17.6 Rare Earth Elements (REEs)
- 17.7 Zeolites
- 17.8 Energy Resources
- 17.8.1 Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal Reserves
- 17.8.2 Shale Gas and Hydraulic Fracturing
- 17.8.3 Nuclear Energy
- 17.8.4 Geothermal Energy
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Online Resources
- Further Reading
- 18.1 The Human Body’s Need for Earth Materials
- 18.2 Soils and Human Health
- 18.2.1 What Constitutes a Fertile Soil?
- Volcanic Soils
- Soil from Young Tectonic Regions
- Glacial Soil
- Wind-blown Soil (Loess)
- 18.2.2 Increasing Crop Production from Agricultural Land, and Soil Depletion
- 18.2.3 The Need for Fertilizers
- 18.2.1 What Constitutes a Fertile Soil?
- 18.3 Carcinogenic and Chemical Hazards Posed by Earth Materials
- 18.3.1 Erionite
- 18.3.2 Asbestos Minerals
- 18.3.3 Silica Minerals
- 18.3.4 Arsenic, an Example of a Chemically Hazardous Earth Material
- Arsenic in the General Environment
- Arsenic in Groundwater in Southeast Asia
- 18.3.5 Health Hazards Due to Radioactivity
- Radon Gas
- Radioactive Waste Disposal from Nuclear Power Plants
- 18.3.6 Carbon Sequestration to Mitigate Climate Change
- 18.4 Hazards from Volcanic Eruptions
- 18.4.1 Monitoring Active Volcanoes
- 18.4.2 Lahars
- 18.5 Tsunamis
- 18.6 Ejecta from Meteorite Impacts
- Summary
- Review Questions
- Online Resources
- USGS health and environment
- Arsenic
- Acid mine drainage
- Carbon dioxide
- Further Reading
- Other Quantitative Terms
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Þú getur flakkað milli síðna og kafla eins og þér hentar best og farið beint í ákveðna kafla úr efnisyfirlitinu. Í leitinni finnur þú orð, kafla eða síður í einum smelli.
Glósur og yfirstrikanir
Þú getur auðkennt textabrot með mismunandi litum og skrifað glósur að vild í rafbókina. Þú getur jafnvel séð glósur og yfirstrikanir hjá bekkjarsystkinum og kennara ef þeir leyfa það. Allt á einum stað.
Hvað viltu sjá? / Þú ræður hvernig síðan lítur út
Þú lagar síðuna að þínum þörfum. Stækkaðu eða minnkaðu myndir og texta með multi-level zoom til að sjá síðuna eins og þér hentar best í þínu námi.
Fleiri góðir kostir
- Þú getur prentað síður úr bókinni (innan þeirra marka sem útgefandinn setur)
- Möguleiki á tengingu við annað stafrænt og gagnvirkt efni, svo sem myndbönd eða spurningar úr efninu
- Auðvelt að afrita og líma efni/texta fyrir t.d. heimaverkefni eða ritgerðir
- Styður tækni sem hjálpar nemendum með sjón- eða heyrnarskerðingu
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- Höfundur : 6158
- Útgáfuár : 2016
- Leyfi : 379